LECTURE EXTENSION

Inhibited and uninhibited behavior in children can be predicted by levels of reactivity to novel stimuli in infancy. Kagan (1998) classified 4-month-old infants as high reactive if they frequently responded with distress to visual, auditory, and olfactory stimulation in the laboratory. These infants also displayed vigorous motor activity. Infants were classified as low reactive if they displayed low levels of motor arousal and minimal irritability in response to laboratory stimulation. High reactivity in infancy predicted shy, inhibited behavior in childhood; and low reactivity predicted uninhibited behavior in childhood.

In addition to being less sociable, 4-year-old children who had been classified as high reactive in infancy appeared to be more intimidated by an unfamiliar female experimenter than were 4-year-olds who had been classified as low reactive in infancy. In one laboratory test, a female experimenter asked children to participate in an action that would not be approved of by most parents. For example, a child might be shown a photograph of the experimenter and then be told to tear up the photograph. Most low-reactive children questioned the examiner as to why they should tear up the photograph, or they simply refused to comply with the request. Low-reactive children did not show signs of anxiety related to their refusal to destroy the photograph. Most high-reactive children seemed reluctant to disobey the authority figure. After a few seconds of delay, many of these children tore off a small corner of the photograph.

Parents report that high-reactive children are very sensitive to criticism. High-reactive children often respond to parental criticism with tantrums, crying, or subdued, withdrawn behavior. Thus, the same event (such as being chastised by a parent) may result in different reactions among different children based upon the individual child's temperament. This points out the importance of the goodness-of-fit between a child's temperament and a parent's child-rearing practices.

Kagan, J. (1998). Biology and the child. In N. Eisenberg (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 3. Social, emotional, and personality development (5th ed., pp. 177-236). New York: Wiley.

LEARNING ACTIVITY

The text indicates that controversy exists over whether a complete set of differentiated basic emotions-happiness, interest, surprise, fear, anger, sadness, and disgust-is present at birth. Have students carefully observe facial, body, and vocal expressions of newborn to 18-month-old youngsters and record any instances that seem to reflect the basic emotions noted above. In addition, interview parents about their infants' range of emotional expressions by asking whether they have seen their infants exhibit these emotions. Do the findings resemble those reported in the text-that signs of almost all the basic emotions are present in the early months and each becomes more recognizable with age?

Using a baby between 2 and 4 months of age, demonstrate the social smile by nodding, smiling, and talking softly to the infant. Also, illustrate parental responsiveness to infant smiling in order to underscore the adaptive role of the smile in promoting positive feelings in adults. For babies 3 months of age and older, have parents describe and, if possible, demonstrate stimuli that elicit laughter, and note their dynamic and intrusive quality (e.g., kissing the baby's tummy). For infants over 7 months of age, point out the rise in fear reactions that generally occurs around this time and that is reflected in the baby's hesitancy to reach for novel objects, wariness of strange adults, and tendency to keep track of the parent's whereabouts in a strange environment. Finally, ask students to look for instances of social referencing in older infants-the tendency to rely on the caregiver's emotional response to form an appraisal of an uncertain situation.