©2001 Allyn & Bacon
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Chapter 12: Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood
During Piaget's concrete operational stage, thought becomes more logical, flexible, and organized. However, children cannot yet think abstractly. Cross-cultural findings raise questions about whether mastery of Piagetian tasks emerges spontaneously in all children. The gradual development of operational reasoning challenges Piaget's assumption of an abrupt, stagewise transition to logical thought.
Brain development leads to gains in information-processing capacity and cognitive inhibition, which facilitate diverse aspects of thinking. Information-processing research reveals that attention becomes more controlled, adaptable, and planful, and memory strategies become more effective. By the end of the school years, knowledge acquisition and use of memory strategies are intimately related and support one another. Metacognition moves from a passive to an active view of mental functioning. Still, school-age children have difficulty regulating their progress toward a goal and redirecting unsuccessful efforts. Academic instruction that combines an emphasis on meaning and understanding with training in basic skills may be most effective in reading and mathematics.
Intelligence tests for children measure overall IQ as well as a variety of separate intellectual factors. Sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligence extends our understanding of the determinants of IQ scores. Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences highlights several intelligences not measured by IQ scores. Heritability and adoption research shows that both genetic and environmental factors contribute to individual differences in intelligence. Because of different language customs and lack of familiarity with test content, IQ scores of low-SES, ethnic minority children often do not reflect their true abilities. Supplementing IQs with measures of adaptive behavior and adjusting testing procedures to take cultural differences into account are ways of reducing test bias.
Language development continues during the school years, although changes are less dramatic than they were during early childhood. Vocabulary increases rapidly, and pragmatic skills are refined. Bilingual children are advanced in cognitive development and metalinguistic awareness.
Schools are powerful forces in children's development. Class size, the school's educational philosophy, teacher-pupil interaction, grouping practices, and the way computers are integrated into classroom learning experiences affect motivation and achievement in middle childhood. Teachers face special challenges in meeting the needs of children who have learning difficulties or special intellectual strengths. American pupils have fared unevenly in recent international comparisons of academic achievement. Efforts are currently underway to upgrade the quality of American education.
©2001 Allyn & Bacon |