Erikson’s stage of industry versus inferiority captures the school-age child’s capacity to become productive and experience feelings of competence and mastery. During middle childhood, psychological traits and social comparisons appear in children’s self-concepts, and a hierarchically organized self-esteem emerges. Gains take place in experiencing of self-conscious emotions, awareness of emotional states, and emotional self-regulation. Middle childhood also brings major advances in perspective taking. Moral understanding expands, influenced by the growing sense of personal domain.

By the end of middle childhood, children form peer groups. Friendships change, emphasizing mutual trust and sensitivity. Peer acceptance becomes a powerful predictor of current and future psychological adjustment, and the antisocial behavior of rejected children leads to severe dislike by agemates. During the school years, boys’ masculine gender identities strengthen, while girls’ identities become more flexible. Cultural values and parental attitudes influence these trends.

Child rearing shifts toward coregulation in middle childhood as parents grant children more decision-making power. Sibling rivalry tends to increase, and siblings often strive to be different from one another. When children experience the divorce or entry into blended families through remarriage of parents, child, parent, and family characteristics influence how well they fare. Maternal employment can lead to many benefits for school-age children, although outcomes vary depending on several child and family factors.

Fears and anxieties change during middle childhood as children experience new demands in school and begin to understand the realities of the wider world. Child sexual abuse has devastating consequences for children and is especially difficult to treat. Personal characteristics of children, a warm, well-organized home life, and social supports outside the family are related to children’s ability to cope with stressful life conditions.