Erikson’s stage of initiative versus guilt offers an overview of the personality changes of early childhood. In early childhood, self-concept begins to take shape and children’s self-esteem is high, supporting their enthusiasm for mastering new skills. Preschoolers’ understanding of emotion, emotional self-regulation, and capacity to experience self-conscious emotions improve, supported by gains in cognition and language as well as warm, sensitive parenting.

During the preschool years, peer interaction increases, cooperative play becomes common, and first friendships are formed, providing important contexts for the development of a wide range of social skills. The development of peer sociability is influenced by cultural variations and parental guidance.

Different aspects of early moral functioning are focused on by three theoretical approaches: psychoanalytic, behaviorist and social learning, and cognitive-developmental. Hostile family atmospheres, poor parenting practices, and heavy television viewing promote childhood aggression, which can spiral into serious antisocial activity.

Gender typing develops rapidly over the preschool years. Heredity contributes to some aspects of gender-typed behavior, but environmental forces, such as parents, siblings, teachers, peers, and television play a powerful role. Neither cognitive-developmental theory nor social learning theory provide a complete account of the development of gender identity. Gender schema theory is a new approach that shows how environmental pressures and children’s cognitions combine to affect gender-role development.

Compared to children of authoritarian and permissive parents, children whose parents use an authoritative style are especially well adjusted and socially mature. Warmth, explanations, and reasonable demands for mature behavior account for the effectiveness of the authoritative style. When child maltreatment occurs, it is the combined result of factors within the family, community, and larger culture. Interventions at all of these levels are essential for preventing it.