This chapter is divided into the following sections:
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Introduction
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"It's a girl," announces the doctor, who holds up the squalling little creature, while her new parents gaze with amazement at their miraculous creation. "A girl! We've named her Sarah!" exclaims the proud father to eager relatives waiting by the telephone for word about their new family member. As we join these parents in thinking about how this wondrous being came into existence and imagining her future, we are struck by many questions. How could this well-formed baby have developed from the union of two tiny cells? What ensures that Sarah will, in due time, roll over, reach for objects, walk, talk, make friends, imagine, and create? Why is she a girl and not a boy, dark-haired rather than blond, calm and cuddly instead of wiry and energetic? What difference will it make that Sarah is given a name and place in one family, community, nation, and culture rather than another?
A. Learning Objectives-Biological Foundations, Prenatal Development, and Birth
- Distinguish between genotype and phenotype.
- Describe the structure and function of the human chromosome, and the process of mitosis.
- Describe the process of meiosis, and explain how it leads to genetic variability.
- Describe the genetic events that result in multiple offspring and that determine the sex of the new organism.
- Describe basic patterns of genetic inheritance, give examples of each, and indicate how harmful genes are created.
- Describe the origins and consequences of Down syndrome and major abnormalities of the sex chromosomes.
- Describe reproductive choices available to prospective parents and those that may be available in the future, and explain the controversies related to each.
- Explain the role of genetic counseling, prenatal diagnosis, and fetal medicine in the reproductive decisions of prospective parents.
- Describe the course of prenatal development, noting the major events in the period of the zygote, the period of the embryo, and the period of the fetus.
- Describe and explain the effects of teratogens on the developing organism.
- Describe how maternal nutrition, emotional well-being, and age may affect the developing organism.
- Describe the stages of childbirth, the baby's adaptation to labor and delivery, and the appearance of the newborn.
- Describe and evaluate various approaches to childbirth, including natural childbirth and home delivery.
- Describe effects of labor and delivery medication on the newborn baby.
- Describe the causes and developmental consequences of oxygen deprivation, preterm delivery, and low birth weight, along with interventions aimed at helping at-risk infants recover.
- Summarize finding on the long-term consequences of birth complications.
- Describe the goals of the field of behavioral genetics, and summarize issues of agreement and disagreement among researchers.
- Describe ways in which researchers determine "how much" heredity and environment contribute to complex human characteristics, and discuss the limitations of these techniques.
- Describe concepts that explain "how" heredity and environment work together to influence complex human characteristics.
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I. Genetic Foundations
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Each individual is made up of trillions of cells. Inside each cell nucleus are chromosomes, which contain a molecule called DNA. Genes are segments of DNA that determine our species and unique characteristics. Gametes, or sex cells, are formed through a process of cell division call meiosis, which halves the usual number of chromosomes in human cells. Then, when sperm and ovum unite to form the zygote, each new being has the correct number of chromosomes. A different combination of sex chromosomes establishes whether a child will be a boy or a girl. Two types of twins-identical and fraternal- are possible. Identical twins have the same genetic makeup, whereas fraternal twins are genetically no more alike than ordinary siblings. Four patterns of inheritance-dominant-recessive, codominant, X-linked, and genetic imprinting-underlie many traits and disorders. Continuous characteristics, such as height and intelligence, result from the enormous complexities of polygenic inheritance, which involves many genes. Chromosomal abnormalities occur when meiosis is disrupted during gamete formation. Disorders of the autosomes are usually more severe than those of the sex chromosomes.
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Parents of Multiple Births Association of Canada
The Parents of Multiple Births Association of Canada (POMBA) is a non-profit organization of parents of multiples across Canada. POMBA created this website to help other parents cope with the challenges of raising twins, triplets, quadruplets and quintuplets. After reviewing this site, explain some of the unique challenges parents encounter in raising multiples.
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Multiple Births and Developmental Brain Damage
While there is often great joy associated with multiple births, there are also great risks. After reading this brief article, recall the factors that have contributed to a rise in multiple births over the last two decades. Then, cite some of the risks associated with multiple births.
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Education of Students with Phenylketonuria
The National Institute of Child Health and Human Development created this site to provide information to teachers, administrators, and other school personnel about Phenylketonuria (PKU). After thoroughly reviewing this report, explain the ways in which PKU affects the child and their school experience.
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Cystic Fibrosis Foundation
The Cystic Fibrosis Foundation supports research, education, and care centers to benefit children and young adults with cystic fibrosis. How does this disease impact the social and emotional development of children living with cystic fibrosis?
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Huntington Disease Information Page
The Huntington Disease Information Page provides links to resources on the Internet. While visiting this site, click on Huntington disease. Then, click on Hot Topics. Read the information regarding fetal cell transplants. Explain the controversy over this procedure. Does it hold promise for those afflicted with Huntington disease?
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Sickle Cell Association
The Sickle Cell Association developed this website to provide information to individuals affected by sickle cell disease and related blood disorders. Review the site. What are the different forms of sickle cell disease? How are the symptoms and treatment for the disease different for children?
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Praeder-Willi Syndrome Association (USA)
This website sponsored by the association provides extensive information regarding the disorder, support services, and current research. Search the site to learn about Praeder-Willi syndrome (PWS). What causes appetite and obesity problems in individuals with PWS? What kind of behavior problems do people with PWS have? Finally, what does the future hold for people with PWS?
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Fragile X Syndrome
Vanderbilt University's John F. Kennedy Center for Research on Human Development created this site as a means of sharing information regarding mental retardation and other disabilities. Read about fragile X syndrome and what the Kennedy Center is doing in the way of research. Then, visit the fact sheet and answer these questions. Why aren't girls affected as much as boys? What are the behavioral symptoms and physical characteristics of fragile X syndrome? Can it be treated?
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National Down Syndrome Congress
The National Down Syndrome Congress assists parents in finding solutions to the needs of children with Down syndrome. Local groups exist across the United States. While at this site visit the Healthwatch page and review the medical concerns associated with Down syndrome.
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Understanding Klinefelter Syndrome
The National Institute of Child Health and Human Development has created this site to provide a better understanding of Klinefelter Syndrome for XXY males and their families. While visiting this site take note of why doctors do not like to refer to this disorder as Klinefelter Syndrome but rather XXY males. Than, explain when and how should a boy be told about being an XXY male?
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Audio 3.2
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Audio
Von Willebrand Disease in Women
Learn about Von Willebrand disease, the most common bleeding disorder among women.
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Activity 3.1
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Matching
Genetic Disorders
Test your knowledge regarding the genetic disorders discussed in your textbook by matching each genetic disorder to the correct description.
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Activity 3.2
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Review of Key Terms
Check your knowledge of key terms and concepts from this section with this quick review.
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II. Reproductive Choices
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Genetic counseling helps couples at risk for giving birth to children with hereditary defects decide whether or not to conceive. Prenatal diagnostic methods make early detection of abnormalities possible. In some cases, treatment can be initiated before birth. Although donor insemination, in vitro fertilization, surrogate motherhood, and post-menopausal-assisted childbirth permit many barren couples to become parents, reproductive technologies raise serious legal and ethical concerns.
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Women's Health: Pregnancy and Birth
This website was created to provide women with information on a variety of women's health topics. This page, in particular, features information on amniocentesis and chorionic villus sampling. Review the contents of this site and take note on the advantages and disadvantages of each procedure. How can a women decide which procedure is best for her?
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Resolve, Inc.
The National Infertility Association created Resolve, Inc. to offer counseling referral and support to persons with fertility problems. How does an individual determine if he/she has an infertility problem? How should they go about finding an infertility specialist?
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Human Cloning Foundation
The Human Cloning Foundation created this website to promote education, awareness, and research about human cloning. What are the benefits of human cloning? Does the Human Cloning Foundation address any possible drawbacks from human cloning? What are the drawbacks?
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National Adoption Information Clearinghouse
The National Adoption Information Clearinghouse provides information on all aspects of adoption, including children from other countries, children with special needs, and state and federal adoption laws.
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Human Genome Project Information
The U.S. Department of Energy has funded this site to provide information about the Human Genome Project. This site describes project goals and current status, including progress in DNA sequence mapping to date and ethical, legal and social concerns. Be sure to review the home page and visit ELSI: The New Genetics and You. What is your view on the ethical, legal, and social issues involved in the Human Genome Project?
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Audio 3.3
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Audio
Genetic Counseling
This brief audio clip discusses the impact genetic counseling has on couples intending pregnancy.
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Video 3.1
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Video
Prenatal Diagnostic Methods in a High-Risk Pregnancy
In this video clip Bonnie, age 40, discusses the role prenatal diagnostic methods played in her high-risk pregnancy.
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Activity 3.4
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Review of Key Terms
Check your knowledge of key terms and concepts from this section with this quick review.
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III. Prenatal Development
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The vast changes that take place during pregnancy are usually divided into three periods. In the period of the zygote, the tiny, one-celled fertilized ovum begins to duplicate and implants itself in the uterine lining. In the period of the embryo, the foundations for all body tissues and organs are rapidly laid down. The longest prenatal phase, the period of the fetus, is devoted to growth in size and completion of body systems.
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National Center for Education in Maternal and Child Health
The National Center for Education in Maternal and Child Health is a government-sponsored agency that provides information on all aspects of maternal and child health. Search the site to find three resources on prenatal development you would recommend to an expectant mother.
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Life with Baby: Pregnancy and Beyond
This website was created by Alexian Brothers Medical Center in Illinois to provide information on about pregnancy and the baby's first year of life. While visiting this site, review the web pages regarding the first, second, and third trimesters of pregnancy and answer the following questions.
- How is a due date calculated?
- How much weight should a woman gain during pregnancy?
- What are the warning signs that tell a pregnant woman she needs to contact her doctor?
- How do you choose a pediatrician?
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Audio 3.4
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Audio
Detecting Ovulation
This audio clip discusses several methods for detecting ovulation.
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Activity 3.5
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Identify
Prenatal Development
Do you know what development takes place during each of the three phases of prenatal development? Find out by completing this exercise.
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Activity 3.6
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Scramble
Events in Prenatal Development
In this activity, various events in prenatal development must be put in the order in which they occur.
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Activity 3.7
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Review of Key Terms
Check your knowledge of key terms and concepts from this section with this quick review.
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IV. Prenatal Environmental Influences
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Teratogens-cigarettes, alcohol, certain drugs, radiation, environmental pollutants, and diseases-can seriously harm the embryo and fetus. The effects of teratogens depend on amount and length of exposure, the genetic makeup of mother and baby, the presence of other harmful environmental agents, and the age of the organism at time of exposure. Teratogens operate according to the sensitive period concept. In general, greatest damage occurs during the embryonic phase, when body structures are formed. Poor maternal nutrition and severe emotional stress can also endanger the developing organism. As long as they are in good health, teenagers, women in their thirties and forties, and women who have given birth to several children have a likelihood of problem-free pregnancies.
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Environmental Mutagen Society
The Environmental Mutagen Society provides information on environmental agents that cause mutation. What teratogens are mentioned on this website that are not mentioned in your chapter?
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CAAT Scientists Seek Tests for Agents that Cause Birth Defects
This website was created by the Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing at John Hopkins University. Review this site. How are animals used to determine whether or not a substance is a teratogen? How critical is this type of research to protecting unborn children from developmental abnormalities?
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The National Clearinghouse for Alcohol and Drug Information
The National Clearinghouse for Alcohol and Drug Information is a government-sponsored agency that provides information on all aspects of alcohol and drug abuse. Search this website for information on an illegal drug not mentioned in your text. What are the specific effects of abuse of this drug on an expectant mother and a developing fetus?
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Alcoholics Anonymous Web Site
Alcoholics Anonymous is an international organization dedicated to helping people recover from alcoholism. Review the site. What are the signs that an individual has a drinking problem?
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7th Generation Fetal Alcohol Syndrome Prevention Project
This website is sponsored by the American Indian Institute at the University of Oklahoma. The 7th Generation Fetal Alcohol Syndrome Prevention Project goal is to develop education and prevention strategies that will decrease the incidence of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) and Fetal Alcohol Effects (FAE). Review the site. Why has the American Indian Institute taken such an interest in FAS and FAE?
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The National Organization on Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
This website was created by NOFAS (The National Organization on Fetal Alcohol Syndrome). NOFAS is an organization that seeks to raise public awareness of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS). In addition to being involved in the prevention of FAS, NOFAS provides information on intervention. Review this site. What are the particular problems an individual might encounter when working with FAS children? What are some strategies for working with FAS children?
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HIV, Pregnancy and our Children
This web page is part of the Mediconsult.com website that is an educational resource for medical information. Read the information regarding HIV and pregnancy. How are pregnancy, birth, and subsequent care of the infant affected when the expectant mother is HIV positive?
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Toxoplasmosis
This web page is part of the New York Online Access to Health website. This page on toxoplasmosis is sponsored by the March of Dimes. Review this page. How does a pregnant woman know if she is immune to toxoplasmosis? How is toxoplasmosis diagnosed and treated during a pregnancy?
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Fitness for Two
This web page is a part of the New York Online Access to Health website. This page is sponsored by the March of Dimes and provides information regarding pregnant women and exercise. How does pregnancy change how a woman's body responds to exercise?
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Running on Full
This website seeks to support pregnant women who are avid runners and want to maintain their commitment to health and fitness during pregnancy. What adjustments must a woman make to continue running while pregnant? Should a woman continue running through the entire pregnancy?
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March of Dimes Birth Defects Foundation
The March of Dimes Birth Defects Foundation works to prevent birth defects through public education and community service programs. While visiting this site, click on Folic Acid. Should all women take folic acid or just pregnant women? How much folic acid should be taken? Does it matter if it is natural folic acid or synthetic folic acid?
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Natal Care: Nutrition
This web page was created by the Family Web website, which provides information on many aspects of family life. This particular page features nutrition information for pregnant women. Read through this information. Then, log all of the food and drink you consumed yesterday. What kind of adjustments would you have to make in your diet to have it conform to the healthy diet plan for a pregnant woman?
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Job Stress and Preeclampsia
This website is part of mediconsult.com, which is an educational resource for medical information. This page features a study on job stress and its relationship to preeclampsia in pregnant women. Read the article. What is preeclampsia? How was job stress defined in the study? What do the results mean for pregnant women who work at stressful jobs?
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Audio 3.5
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Audio
Smoking and the Newborn Baby
This audio clip talks about the effect of second hand smoke on infants.
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Video 3.2
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Video
Pregnant at Forty: Mixed Emotions
Bonnie discusses her reaction to discovering that she was pregnant at age forty.
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Activity 3.8
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Matching
Teratogens
Check your understanding of the effects of teratogens on prenatal development by completing this matching activity.
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Activity 3.9
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Review of Key Terms
Check your knowledge of key terms and concepts from this section with this quick review.
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V. Childbirth
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Childbirth takes place in three stages, beginning with contractions that open the cervix so the baby can be pushed through the birth canal and ending with delivery of the placenta. During labor, infants produce high levels of stress hormones, which help them withstand oxygen deprivation and arouse them into alertness at birth. Newborn babies' large heads and small bodies are odd-looking, but their attractive facial features make adults feel like picking them up and cuddling them. The Apgar Scale is used to assess the newborn baby's physical condition at birth.
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The Man's View of Pregnancy
George Watson, a college instructor who teaches about the Internet, created this website to share with others a male perspective on pregnancy and childbirth. While visiting this site, read his journal entries regarding Beth's labor and delivery. What were George's predominant feelings during this time?
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Weblink
Childbirth
This site offers a wealth of information on all aspects of childbirth. Using information from this site, write an essay on the stages of childbirth that expands on the information provided in your textbook.
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Audio 3.6
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Audio
The Newborn Baby's Appearance
This audio clip provides more information on some typical physical characteristics of the newborn baby.
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Audio 3.7
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Audio
Tests for the Newborn Baby
Learn more about medical tests and treatments given to all newborn babies.
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Activity 3.10
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Fill-in-the-Blank
Childbirth
Use your knowledge of the stages of childbirth to complete Lynette's story about the birth of her child.
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Activity 3.11
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Review of Key Terms
Check your knowledge of key terms and concepts from this section with this quick review.
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VI. Approaches to Childbirth
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Natural, or prepared, childbirth improves mother's attitudes toward labor and delivery and reduces the need for medication. Home births are safe for healthy women, provided attendants are well trained. Analgesics and anesthetics are necessary in complicated deliveries. When given in large doses, these pain-relieving drugs produce a depressed state in the newborn that affects the early parent-infant relationship. They also increase the likelihood of an instrument delivery.
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Water Birth
This website was created by the Global Maternal/Child Health Association to inform families of the benefits of having labor and delivery in water. Review this site. What are the pros and cons of selecting to give birth underwater?
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The Bradley Method of Natural Childbirth
This website was created by the American Academy of Husband-Coached Childbirth to provide information regarding the Bradley Method of natural childbirth. What is the Bradley Method? How can it be distinguished from other methods of natural childbirth?
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Lamaze International
Lamaze International created this website to provide information regarding the Lamaze method of natural childbirth, Lamaze membership, and Lamaze childbirth educator certification. What is the Lamaze philosophy of childbirth? Compare and contrast the Lamaze method with the Bradley method of natural childbirth.
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The Homebirth Choice
This site contains an article from Midwifery Today Magazine about the choice of homebirth. It provides a wealth of information regarding the homebirth choice. Why is homebirth a more common option for the childbirth experience in other parts of the world? How should someone interested in the homebirth experience choose a midwife?
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American College of Nurse-Midwives
The American College of Nurse-Midwives certifies nurse-midwives and provides referrals to expectant parents. Would you recommend using this site to find a nurse-midwife for the home delivery of your child?
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Epidural Anesthesia for Labor
This website provides information on epidural anesthesia for labor. What is epidural anesthesia? How is it done? What are the risks and benefits of this type of pain control for labor? What is the affect of epidural anesthesia on the infant?
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Cesarean Section Homepage
The Cesarean Section Homepage offers a wealth of information on cesarean delivery. Your text states that many unnecessary cesareans are performed in the United States. What steps can a pregnant woman take to avoid having an unnecessary cesarean delivery?
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Audio 3.8
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Audio
Primary Caregivers for Pregnancy and Childbirth
This brief audio clip explains the different kinds of physicians that women can choose from to guide them through the pregnancy and childbirth experience.
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Audio 3.9
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Audio
Primary Caregivers for Home Delivery
Learn about the caregiving options available for women considering a home delivery.
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Video 3.3
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Video
Bonnie's Decision: Cesarean or Vaginal Delivery
In this video clip, Bonnie talks about the decision of whether to have a cesarean or vaginal delivery.
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Activity 3.12
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Identify
Approaches to Childbirth
Complete this activity to find out how well you understand the difference between natural childbirth and home delivery.
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Activity 3.13
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Review of Key Terms
Check your knowledge of key terms and concepts from this section with this quick review.
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VII. Birth Complications
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Birth complications can threaten children's development. Oxygen deprivation, when extreme, causes lasting brain damage. Preterm and low-birth-weight infants are at risk for many problems. Providing these babies with special stimulation and teaching parents how to care for and interact with them helps restore favorable growth. Preterm infants living in stressed, low-income households require long-term, intensive intervention to reduce developmental difficulties. When newborns with serious complications grow up in a positive social environment, they have a good change of catching up in development.
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Rh Disease
This web page is part of the New York Online Access to Health website. Sponsored by the March of Dimes, this page provides extensive information on Rh disease. Review the site. What conditions must be present in order for a couple to be concerned about Rh disease? What is RhIg? How does it work? Does it always work?
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United Cerebral Palsy Association
United Cerebral Palsy Association (UCPA) created this website to provide information about their organization. UCPA seeks to better the lives of individuals with cerebral palsy and other disabilities by funding programs and services that further the inclusion of the disabled in their community. What projects is the UCPA currently involved in?
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Lung Disease in Minorities: Respiratory Distress Syndrome
This web page is part of the American Lung Association's website that provides information on a variety of lung disorders. This page focuses on respiratory distress syndrome (RDS) among African American babies. Why is RDS a greater problem for African American babies?
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Preventing Preterm Labor
The Preventing Preterm Labor web page is part of the New York Online Access to Health website. Sponsored by the March of Dimes, this page extensive information on preterm labor. Who is at risk for preterm labor? What are the symptoms? Can preterm labor be prevented?
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Maria Mathias Infant Massage Programs
Maria Mathias is an Infant Massage Specialist. She has designed an infant massage instructor certification program, initiated infant massage programs in hospital based settings, and has been an active speaker on the topic of infant massage at conferences throughout the U.S. How has infant massage benefited biologically and environmentally at-risk infants? What are the benefits of parents using infant massage on their healthy infants at home?
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National Information Center for Children and Youth with Disabilities
This website provides information to parents and educators on services for children with disabilities.
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Parents Helping Parents
Parents Helping Parents is a nonprofit organization that offers a wide variety of services and educational programs to help parents raise children with special needs, including those with birth defects.
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Infant Death
This web page is part of the Center for Disease Control's Reproductive Health Information Source website. While visiting this site, click on Postneonatal mortality surveillance - United States, l980-1994. What is postneonatal mortality? What kind of impact have these statistics had on the infant mortality rate in the U.S.? Next, click on Infant mortality rates. Where do we need to concentrate our efforts (neonatal, early neonatal, or postneonatal) if we want to reduce the infant mortality rate in the U.S.?
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Activity 3.14
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Matching
Birth Complications
Test your knowledge of terms and concepts covered in the birth complications section of your text by completing this matching exercise.
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Activity 3.15
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Review of Key Terms
Check your knowledge of key terms and concepts from this section with this quick review.
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VIII. Heredity, Environment, and Behavior: A Look Ahead
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Behavioral genetics is a field devoted to discovering the hereditary and environmental origins of complex characteristics, such as intelligence and personality. Some researchers believe it is useful and possible to determine "how much' each factor contributes to individual differences. These investigators compute heritability estimates and concordance rates from kinship studies. Other researchers believe the important question is "how" heredity and environment work together. The concepts of range of reaction, canalization, and genetic-environmental correlation remind us that development is best understood as a series of complex exchanges between nature and nurture.
Activity 3.16
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Matching
Heredity, Environment, and Behavior
Check your understanding of measures and concepts used by researchers to explain the interplay between heredity and environment in development by completing this matching exercise.
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Activity 3.17
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Review of Key Terms
Check your knowledge of key terms and concepts from this section with this quick review.
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Conclusions
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Activity 3.18
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Concept Check
Complete this matching exercise of key terms and concepts from the chapter.
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Activity 3.19
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Closing Thoughts
Revisit the opening scenario and consider the situation in light of what you have learned and answer these additional questions.
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Practice Test
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Practice Test
Complete a 10-point practice test to assess your knowledge of the information discussed in Chapter 3, Biological Foundations, Prenatal Development, and Birth.
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