absolute poverty: a condition that exists when people do not have the means to secure the most basic necessities of life

acid rain: rainfall containing large concentrations of sulfuric and nitric acids (primarily from the burning of fuel and car and truck exhausts)

acquaintance rape: forcible sexual activity that meets the legal definition of rape and involves people who first meet in a social setting

acute diseases: those illnesses that strike suddenly and cause dramatic incapacitation and death

ageism: prejudice and discrimination against people on the basis of age

alienation: occurs when workers' needs for self-identity and meaning are not met and when work is done strictly for material gain, not a sense of personal satisfaction

amalgamation (the melting pot model): a process whereby the cultural attributes of diverse racial-ethnic groups are blended together to form a new society incorporating the unique contributions of each group

Anglo-conformity model: a pattern of assimilation whereby members of subordinate racial-ethnic groups are expected to conform to the culture of the dominant (white) Anglo-Saxon population

anti-Semitism: prejudice and discriminatory behavior directed at Jews

assimilation: the process by which members of subordinate racial and ethnic groups become absorbed into the dominant culture

blaming the victim: a practice engaged in by persons who view a social problem as emanating from within the individual who exhibits the problem

blended family: a family that consists of a husband and wife, children from previous marriages, and children (if any) from the new marriage

capital flight: investing U.S. money and other resources in facilities located in other nations where indigenous workers do the work previously done by U.S. workers

capitalism: an economic system characterized by private ownership of the means of production, so that personal profits are derived through market competition and without government intervention

chronic diseases: those illnesses that are long term or lifelong and that develop gradually or are present from birth

class consciousness: a feeling of unity based on an awareness of workers' shared exploitation by members of the capitalist class

codependency: a reciprocal relationship between the alcoholic and one or more nonalcoholics who unwittingly aid and abet the alcoholic's excessive drinking and resulting behavior

cohabitation: two unmarried adults living together in a sexual relationship without being legally married.

collective violence: organized violence by people seeking to promote their cause or resist social policies or practices that they consider oppressive

comparable worth: the belief that wages ought to reflect the worth of a job, not the gender or race of the worker

conflict perspective: a framework for viewing society that is based on the assumption that groups in society are engaged in a continuous power struggle for control of scarce resources

conglomerates: combinations of businesses in different commercial areas, all of which are owned by one holding company

contingent work: part-time work, temporary work, and subcontracted work that offers advantages to employers but can be detrimental to workers' welfare

core nations: dominant capitalist centers characterized by high levels of industrialization and urbanization

corporate crime: illegal acts committed by corporate employees on behalf of the corporation and with its support

corporations: large-scale organizations that have the legal power (separate from individual owners or shareholders) to enter into contracts, buy and sell property, and engage in other business activity

crime: a behavior that violates criminal law and is punishable by fine, a jail term, or other negative sanctions

criminal justice system: the network of organizations involved in law enforcement and the administration of justice

cultural capital: social assets such as values, beliefs, attitudes, and competencies in language and culture that are learned at home and required for success and social advancement

cultural lag: a situation in which changes in ideas, values, and moral and legal institutions trail behind changes in material technology

deindustrialization: the process by which capital is diverted from investment in basic industries (in the form of economic resources, plants, and equipment) to business practices such as mergers and acquisitions and foreign investment

deinstitutionalization: the practice of discharging patients from mental hospitals into the community

democracy: a political system in which the people hold the ruling power either directly or through elected representatives

demographic transition theory: the process by which some societies move from high birth and death rates to relatively low birth and death rates as a result of technological development

demography: the area of sociology that studies the size, composition, and distribution of populations, among other things

dependency ratio: the number of workers necessary to support persons under age fifteen and over age sixty-three

desertification: the process through which once usable land is turned into desert because of overgrazing, harmful agricultural practices, or deforestation

developed nations: countries with highly industrialized economies; technologically-advanced industrial, administrative, and service occupations; and relatively high levels of national and per capita (per person) income

developing nations: countries undergoing transformation from agrarian to industrial economies

deviance: a behavior, belief, or condition that violates social norms

differential association theory: the belief that individuals have a greater tendency to deviate from societal norms when they frequently associate with people who tend toward deviance rather than conformity

disability: a restricted or total lack of ability to perform certain activities as a result of physical limitations or the interplay of these limitations, social responses, and the social environment

discrimination: actions or practices of dominant group members (or their representatives) that have a harmful impact on members of subordinate groups

domestic partnerships: household partnerships in which an unmarried couple lives together in a committed, sexually intimate relationship and is granted the same rights and benefits accorded to heterosexual couples

drug: any substance—other than food or water—that, when taken into the body, alters its functioning in some way

drug addiction (or drug dependency): a psychological and/or physical need for a drug to maintain a sense of well-being and avoid withdrawal symptoms

drug subculture: a group of people whose attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors pertaining to drug use differ significantly from those of most people in the larger society

dual-earner marriages: marriages in which both spouses are in the labor force

economy: the social institution responsible for producing and distributing goods and services

edge city: a middle- to upper-middle class area with complete working, shopping, and leisure activities so that it is not dependent on the central city or other suburbs

education: the social institution responsible for transmitting knowledge, skills, and cultural values in a formally organized structure

elite model: a view of society in which power in political systems is concentrated in the hands of a small group, whereas the masses are relatively powerless

environmental degradation: disruptions to the environment that have negative consequences for ecosystems

environmental racism: the belief that a disproportionate number of hazardous facilities are placed in areas populated primarily by poor people and people of color

environmental tobacco smoke: the side stream smoke in the air inhaled by nonsmokers as a result of other people's tobacco smoking

erotica: materials that depict consensual sexual activities that are sought by and pleasurable to all parties involved

ethnic group: a category of people who are distinguished, by others or by themselves, as inferior or superior, primarily on the basis of cultural or nationality characteristics

ethnic pluralism: a situation in which diverse racial-ethnic groups coexist in society but have separate identities and cultures

ethnocentrism: the assumption that one's own group and way of life are superior to all others

experiments: carefully designed situations in which the researcher studies the impact of certain factors on subjects' attitudes or behavior

extended family: a family unit composed of relatives in addition to parents and children who live in the same household

families: relationships in which people live together with commitment, form an economic unit and care for any young, and consider their identity to be significantly attached to the group

family of orientation: the family into which a person is born and in which early socialization takes place

family of procreation: the family that a person forms by having or adopting children

felony: a serious crime, such as murder, rape, and aggravated assault, that is punishable by more than a year's imprisonment or even death

feminization of poverty: the trend whereby women are disproportionately represented among individuals living in poverty

fertility: the actual number of children born to an individual or a population

fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS): a condition characterized by mental retardation and craniofacial malformations in the child of an alcoholic mother

field research: the study of social life in its natural setting—observing and interviewing people where they live, work, and play

forcible rape: the act of forcing sexual intercourse on a woman of legal age against her will