functionalist perspective: a framework for viewing society that views society as a stable, orderly system composed of a number of interrelated parts, each of which performs a function that contributes to the overall stability of society
functionally illiterate: being unable to read and/or write at the skill level necessary for carrying out everyday tasks
gender: culturally and socially constructed differences between females and males that are based on meanings, beliefs, and practices that a group or society associates with "femininity" or "masculinity"
gender bias: a situation in which favoritism is shown toward one gender
gender gap: the difference between a candidate's number of votes from women and men
gendered division of labor: the process whereby productive tasks are separated on the basis on gender
gendered racism: the interactive effect of racism and sexism in exploiting women of color
genocide: the deliberate, systematic killing of an entire people or nation
gentrification: the process by which people renovate or restore properties in central cities
glass ceiling: an invisible institutional barrier constructed by male management that prevents women from reaching top positions in major corporations and other large-scale organizations
government: a formal organization that has the legal and political authority to regulate relationships among people in a society and between the society and others outside its borders
greenhouse effect: an environmental condition caused by excessive quantities of carbon dioxide, water vapor, methane, and nitrous oxide in the atmosphere
hate crimes: attacks against people because of their race, religion, skin color, disability, sexual orientation, national origin, or ancestry
health maintenance organization (HMO): an organization that provides, for a fixed monthly fee, total care with an emphasis on prevention to avoid costly treatment later
hidden curriculum: the way certain cultural values and attitudes, such as conformity and obedience to authority, are transmitted through implied demands in the everyday rules and routines of schools
homophobia: excessive fear or intolerance of homosexuality
hospices: organizations that provide a homelike facility or home-based care (or both) for persons who are terminally ill
illegitimate opportunity structures: circumstances that allow people to acquire through illegitimate activities what they cannot achieve legitimately
income: the economic gain derived from wages, salaries, income transfers (governmental aid such as Aid to Families with Dependent Children), or ownership of property
individual discrimination: one-on-one acts by members of the dominant group that harm members of the subordinate group or their property
industrialization: the process by which societies are transformed from a dependence on agriculture and handmade products to an emphasis on manufacturing and related industries
infant mortality rate: the number of deaths of infants under 1 year of age per 1,000 live births in a given year
institutional discrimination: the day-to-day practices of organizations and institutions that have a harmful impact on members of subordinate groups
interactionist perspective: a framework that views society as the sum of the interactions of individuals and groups
internal colonialism: a process that occurs when members of a racial-ethnic group are conquered or colonized and forcibly placed under the economic and political control of the dominant group
job deskilling: the process by which technological innovations reduce the proficiency needed to perform a specific job, leading to correspondingly lower wages for that job
juvenile delinquency: a violation of law or the commission of a status offense by a young person under a specific age
kinship: a social network of people based on common ancestry, marriage, or adoption
labeling theory: the suggestion that delinquents and criminals are those people who have been successfully labeled as such by others
latent functions: hidden, unstated, and sometimes unintended consequences of activities in an organization or institution
life chances: the extent to which individuals have access to important societal resources such as food, clothing, shelter, education, and health care
life expectancy: an estimate of the average lifetime of people born in a specific year
lifestyle-routine activity approach: the belief that the patterns and timing of people's daily movements and activities as they go about obtaining the necessities of life—such as food, shelter, companionship, and entertainment—are the keys to understanding violent personal crimes and other types of crime in our society
macrolevel analysis: focuses on social processes occurring at the societal level, especially in large-scale organizations and major social institutions such as politics, government, and the economy
majority (or dominant) group: one that is advantaged and has superior resources and rights in a society
managed care: any system of cost containment that closely monitors and controls health care providers' decisions about medical procedures, diagnostic tests, and other services that should be provided to patients
manifest functions: open, stated, and intended goals or consequences of activities within an organization or institution
mass murder: the killing of four or more people at one time and in one place by the same person
master status: the most significant status a person possesses because it largely determines how individuals view themselves and how they are treated by others
mechanical solidarity: social bonds based on shared religious beliefs and a simple division of labor
medical-industrial complex: a term that encompasses both local physicians and hospitals as well as global health-related industries such as pharmaceutical and medical supply companies that deliver health care today
megalopolis: a continuous concentration of two or more cities and their suburbs that have grown until they form an interconnected urban area
melting pot: see amalgamation
microlevel analysis: focuses on small group relations and social interaction among individuals
migration: the movement of people from one geographic area to another for the purpose of changing residency
military-industrial complex: the interdependence of the military establishment and private military contractors
minority (or subordinate) group: one whose members, because of physical or cultural characteristics, are disadvantaged and subjected to unequal treatment by the dominant group and regard themselves as objects of collective discrimination
misdemeanor: a relatively minor crime, that is punishable by a fine or less than a year in jail
mixed economy: an economic system that combines elements of both capitalism (a market economy) and socialism (a command economy)
monogamy: a marriage between one woman and one man
monopoly: a situation that exists when a single firm controls an industry and accounts for all sales in a specific market
mortality: the number of deaths that occur in a specific population
murder: the unlawful, intentional killing of one person by another
norms: established rules of behavior or standards of conduct
nuclear family: a family unit composed of one or two parents and their dependent children who live apart from other relatives
obscenity: the legal term for pornographic materials that are offensive by generally accepted standards of decency
occupational (white-collar) crime: illegal activities committed by people in the course of their employment or normal business activity
oligopoly: a situation that exists when overwhelming control of an entire industry or service is held by a small number of companies or suppliers
organic solidarity: social bonds based on interdependence and an elaborate division of labor
organized crime: a business operation that supplies illegal goods and services for profit
patriarchy: a hierarchical system of social organization in which cultural, political, and economic structures are controlled by men
peripheral nations: nations that depend on core nations for capital, have little or no industrialization (other than what may be brought in by core nations), and have uneven patterns of urbanization
permanent government: the top-tier civil service bureaucrats who have a strong power base and play a major role in developing and implementing government policies and procedures
perspective: an overall approach or viewpoint toward some subject
pink-collar occupations: the relatively low-paying, nonmanual, semiskilled positions that are held primarily by women
plea bargaining: a process whereby the prosecution negotiates a reduced sentence in exchange for a guilty plea
pluralist model: the view that power is widely dispersed throughout many competing interest groups in a political system
political action committees (PACs): special interest groups that fund campaigns to help elect (or defeat) candidates based on their positions on specific issues
politics: the social institution through which power is acquired and exercised by some people and groups
population composition: the biological and social characteristics of a population, including such attributes as age, sex, race, marital status, education, occupation, income, and size of household