Slavin On Line Glossary

Glossary

Acceleration programs--Rapid promotion through advanced studies for students who are gifted or talented.

Accommodation--Modifying existing schemes to fit new situations.

Accountability--The degree to which people are held responsible for their task performances or decision outcomes.

Achievement batteries--Standardized tests that include several subtests designed to measure knowledge of particular subjects.

Achievement motivation--The desire to experience success and to participate in activities in which success is dependent on personal effort and abilities.

Achievement tests--Standardized tests measuring how much students have learned in a given context.

Adaptation--The process of adjusting schemes in response to the environment by means of assimilation.

Advance organizers--Activities and techniques that orient students to the material before reading or class presentations.

Allocated time--Time during which students have the opportunity to learn.

Analogies--Relating new concepts to information students already understand.

Antecedent stimulus--Event that comes before a behavior.

Applied behavior analysis--The application of behavioral learning principles to understand and change behavior.

Aptitude test--A test designed to measure general abilities and to predict future performance.

Aptitude-Treatment interaction--Interaction of individual differences in learning with particular teaching methods.

Assertive Discipline--Giving a clear, firm, unhostile response to student misbehavior.

Assessment--A measure of the degree to which instructional objectives have been attained.

Assimilation--Interpreting new experiences in relation to existing schemes.

Associative play--Much like parallel play but with increased levels of interaction in the form of sharing, turn-taking, and general interest in what others are doing.

Attention deficit disorder (ADD)--The inability to concentrate for long periods of time.

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)--A disorder characterized by difficulties maintaining attention because of a limited ability to concentrate; includes impulsive actions and hyperactive behavior.

Attention--The process of focusing on certain stimuli while screening others out.

Attribution theory--An explanation of motivation that focuses on how people explain the causes of their own successes and failures.

Authentic assessment--Measurement of important abilities using procedures that simulate the application of these abilities to real-life problems.

Authoritarian parents--Parents who strictly enforce their authority over their children.

Authoritative parents--Parents who mix firm guidance with respect and warmth toward their children.

Autism--A category of disability that significantly affects social interaction, verbal and nonverbal communication, and educational performance.

Automaticity--Process by which thoroughly learned tasks can be performed with little mental effort.

Autonomous morality--stage at which a person understands that people make rules and that punishments are not automatic.

Aversive stimulus--A condition that a person tries to avoid or escape.

Backward planning--Planning instruction by first setting long-range goals, then setting unit objectives, and finally planning daily lessons.

Behavior content matrix--A chart that classifies lesson objectives according to cognitive level.

Behavior modification--Systematic application of antecedents and consequences to change behavior.

Behavioral learning theory--Explanation of learning that emphasizes observable changes in behavior.

Between-class ability grouping--The practice of grouping students by ability level in separate classes within-class ability

Bilingual education--Instructional program for students who speak little or no English in which some instruction is provided in the native language.

Calling order--The order in which students are called on by the teacher to answer questions asked during the course of a lesson.

Centration--Paying attention to only one aspect of an object or a situation.

Cerebral palsy--Disorder in ability to control movements caused by damage to the motor area of the brain

Choral response--A response to a question made by an entire class in unison.

Chronological age--The age of an individual in years.

Class inclusion--A skill learned during the concrete operational stage of cognitive development in which individuals can think simultaneously about a whole class of objects as well as relationships among its subordinate classes.

Classical conditioning--Associating a previously neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus to evoke a conditioned response.

Classroom management--Methods used to organize classtoom activities, instruction, physical structure, and other features to make effective use of time, to create a happy and productive learning environment, and to minimize behavior problmes and other disruptions.

Closure--The mental tendency to organize perceptions so they make sense.

Cognitive apprenticeship--The process by which a learner gradually acquires expertise in interaction with an expert, either an adult or an older or more advanced peer.

Cognitive behavior modification--Procedures based on both behavioral and cognitive learning principles for changing your own behavior by using self-talk and self-instruction.

Cognitive development--Gradual, orderly changes by which mental processes become more complex and sophisticated.

Cognitive dissonance theory--An explanation of the discomfort people feel when new perceptions or behaviors clash with long-held beliefs.

Cognitive learning theory--Explanation of learning that focuses on mental processes.

Collaboration--Professionals working cooperatively to provide educational services.

Compensatory education--A program that is designed to prevent or remediate learning problems for students who are from lower socioeconomic status communities.

Compensatory preschool programs--Programs designed to prepare disadvantaged children for entry into kindergarten and first grade.

Completion items--Fill-in-the-blank items on tests.

Computer-based instruction(CBA)--Individualized instruction administered by a computer.

Concept--An abstract idea that is generalized from specific examples.

Concrete operational stage--Stage at which children develop skills of logical reasoning and conservation but can use theses kills only when dealing with familiar situations.

Conditioned stimulus--A stimulus that naturally evokes a particular response.

Conduct disorders--Socioemotional and behavioral disorders indicated in individuals who, for example, are chronically disobedient or disruptive.

Connectionist models--Theories that knowledge is stored in the brain in a network of connections, not in systems of rules or individual bits of information.

Consequence--A condition that follows a behavior and affects the frequency of future behavior.

Conservation--The concept that certain properties of an object (such as weight) remain the same regardless of changes in other properties (such as length).

Construct validity--Degree to which test scores reflect what the test is intended to measure.

Constructivism--Theories of cognitive development that emphasize the active role of learners in building their own understanding of reality.

Constructivist theories of learning--State that learners must individually discover and transform complex information, checking new information against old rules and revising them when they no longer work.

Content validity--A measure of the match between the content of a test and the content of the instruction that preceded it.

Contingent praise--Praise that is effective because it refers directly to specific task performances.

Continuous theory of development--Theory based on the belief that human development progresses smoothly and gradually from infancy to adulthood.

Control Group--Group that receives no special treatment during an experiment.

Conventional level of morality--Stages 3 and 4 in Kohlberg's model of moral development, in which individuals make moral judgments in consideration of others.

Convulsive disorders--Forms of epilepsy.

Cooperative play--Play in which children join together to achieve a common goal.

Cooperative scripts--A study method in which students work in pairs and take turns orally summarizing sections of material to be learned.

Corrective instruction--Educational activities that are given to students who initially fail to master an objective; designed to increase the number of students who master educational objectives.

Correlational Study--Research into the relationships between variables as they naturally occur.

Criterion-referenced evaluations--Assessments that rate how thoroughly students have mastered specific skills or areas of knowledge.

Critical thinking--Ability to make rational decisions about what to do or what to believe.

Critical Thinking--Evaluating conclusions by logically and systematically examining the problem, the evidence, and the solution.

Cross-age tutoring--Peer tutoring between an older and a younger student.

Cue--Signal as to what behavior(s) will be reinforced or punished.

Culture--The language, attitudes, ways of behaving, and other aspects of life that characterize a group of people.

Cutoff score--Score designated as the minimum necessary to demonstrate mastery of a subject.

Deficiency needs--Basic requirements for physical and psychological well-being as identified by Maslow.

Derived scores--Values computed from raw scores that relate students1 performances to those of a norming group; examples are percentiles and grade equivalents.

Descriptive Research--Study aimed at identifying and gathering detailed information about something of interest.

Developmentally appropriate education--Instruction felt to be adapted to the current developmental status of children (rather than their age alone).

Development--Orderly and lasting growth, adaptation, and change over the course of a lifetime.

Diagnostic tests--Tests of specific skills used to identify students1 needs and to guide instruction.

Direct instruction--Approach to teaching in which lessons are goal-oriented and structured by the teacher.

Disability--The inability to do something specific such as walk or hear.

Discipline--Methods used to prevent behavior problems from occurring or to respond to behavior problems so as to reduce their occurrence in the future.

Discontinuous theory of development--Theory based on the belief that human development occurs through a series of distinct stages.

Discovery learning--Teaching methods in which students are encouraged to discover principles for themselves.

Discrimination--Perception of and response to differences in stimuli.

Distractors--Incorrect responses offered as alternative answers to a multiple-choice question.

Distributed practice--Technique in which items to be learned are repeated at intervals over a period of time.

Drill and practice--Applications of microcomputers that provide students with practice of skills and knowledge.

Dual code theory of memory--Theory suggesting that information coded both visually and verbally is remembered better than information coded in only one of those two ways.

Early intervention programs--Compensatory preschool programs that target very young children at the greatest risk of school failure.

Early intervention--Programs that target at-risk infants and toddlers to prevent possible later need for remediation.

Educational Psychology--The study of learning and teaching.

Egocentric--Believing that everyone views the world as you do.

Elaboration--Connecting new material to information or ideas already in the learner's mind.

Emergent literacy--Knowledge and skills relating to reading that children usually develop from experience with books and other print media before the beginning of formal reading instruction in school.

Emotional and behavioral disorders--Category of exceptionality characterized by problems with learning, interpersonal relationships, and control of feelings and behavior.

Enactment--Learning process in which individuals physically carry out tasks.

Engaged time--Time students spend actually learning; same as time on-task.

English as a second language--Designation for programs and classes to teach English to students who are not native speakers of English.

Enrichment activities--Assignments or activities designed to broaden or deepen the knowledge of students who master classroom lessons quickly.

Enrichment programs--Programs in which assignments or activities are designed to broaden or deepen the knowledge of students who master classroom lessons quickly.

Episodic memory--A part of long-term memory that stores images of our personal experiences.

Equilibration--The process of restoring balance between present understanding and new experiences.

Ethnic group--A group within a larger society that sees itself as having a common history, social and cultural heritage, and traditions, often based on race, religion, language, or national identity.

Ethnicity--A history, culture, and sense of identity shared by a group of people.

Evaluation--Decision making about student performance and about appropriate teaching strategies.

Events of instruction--A model of instruction developed by Gagné that matches instructional strategies with the cognitive processes involved in learning.

Exceptional learners--Students who have abilities or problems so significant that the students require special education or other services to reach their potential.

Expectancy theory--Theory of motivation based on the belief that people1s efforts to achieve depend on their expectations of reward.

Expectancy-valence model--A theory that relates the probability and incentive of success to motivation.

Experimental Group--Group that receives treatment during an experiment.

Experiment--Procedure used to test the effects of a treatment.

External Validity--Degree to which results of an experiment can be applied to real-life situations.

Extinction burst--The increase in levels of behavior in the early stages of extinction.

Extinction--Eliminating or decreasing a behavior by removing reinforcement for it.

Extrinsic incentive--A reward that is external to the activity, such as recognition or a good grade.

Extrinsic reinforcer--Praise or rewards given to motivate people to engage in behavior that they might not engage in without it.

Feedback--Information on the results of one1s efforts.

Field dependence--Cognitive style in which patterns are perceived as whole.

Field independence--Cognitive style in which separate parts of a pattern are perceived and analyzed.

Figure-ground relationship--Perceiving selected parts of a stimulus to stand out (figure) from other parts (background).

Fixed-interval schedule--Reinforcement schedule in which desired behavior is rewarded following a constant amount of time.

Fixed-ratio (FR) schedule--Reinforcement schedule in which desired behavior is rewarded following a fixed number of behaviors.

Flashbulb memory--Important events that are fixed mainly in visual and auditory memory.

Foreclosure--An individual's premature establishment of an identity based on parental choices rather than their own.

Formal operational thought--Deals abstractly with hypothetical situations and reason.

Formative evaluation--Tests or assessments administered during units of instruction that measure progress and guide the content and pace of lessons.

Formative quiz--Evaluation designed to determine whether additional instruction is needed.

Free-recall learning--A task requiring recall of a list of items in any order.

Full inclusion--Policy or practice of placing all students in regular classes with appropriate assistance.

Functional fixedness--Block to solving problems caused by an inability to see new uses for familiar objects or ideas.

Gender bias--Different views of males and females, often favoring one gender over the other.

Generalization--Carryover of behaviors, skills, or concepts from one setting or task to another.

Generative learning--A theory that emphasizes the active integration of new material with existing schemata.

Gestalt psychology--A psychological movement, started in Germany, that advanced the understanding of perception.

Giftedness--Category of exceptionality characterized by being very bright, creative, or talented.

Goal structure--The degree to which students are placed in competitive or cooperative relationships in earning classroom rewards.

Grade-equivalent scores--Standard scores that relate students1 raw scores to the average scores obtained by norming groups a t different grade levels.

Group alerting--Methods of questioning that encourage students to pay attention during lectures and discussions.

Group contingencies--Class rewards that depend on the behavior of all students.

Group contingency program--Program in which rewards or punishments are given to a class as a whole for adhering to or violating rules of conduct.

Group Investigating--A cooperative learning model that involves small groups in which students work using cooperative inquiry, planning, project, and group discussion, then make a presentation on their findings to the class.

Growth needs--Needs for knowing, appreciating, and understanding, which people try to satisfy after their basic needs are met.

Handicap--A condition imposed on a person with disabilities by society, the physical environment, or the person1s attitude.

Hearing loss--Degree of deafness; uncorrectable inability to hear well.

Heteronomous morality--Stage at which children think that rules are unchangeable and that breaking them leads automatically to punishment.

Home-based reinforcement strategies--Behavior modification strategies in which a student1s school behavior is reported to parents, who supply rewards.

Hyperactivity--Condition characterized by extreme restlessness and short attention spans relative to peers.

Identity diffusion--The adolescent's inability to develop a clear sense of self.

Identity foreclosure--The premature choice of a role, often done to reinforce self-concept.

Imagery--Use of mental images to improve memory.

Impulsivity--Cognitive style of responding quickly but often without regard for accuracy.

Independent practice--Component of instruction in which students work by themselves to demonstrate and rehearse new knowledge.

Individual Learning Expectation (ILE)--A teaching method that includes evaluation of students improvement relative to past achievement.

Individualized Education Program (IEP)--Program tailored to the needs of an exceptional child.

Individualized instruction--Teaching approach in which each student works at his or her own level and rate.

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)--Federal law P.L. 101-476 enacted in 1990 changing the name of P.L. 94-142 and broadening services to adolescents with disabilities.

Inert knowledge--Learned information that can be applied to only a restricted, often artificial set of circumstances.

Inferred reality--The meaning of stimuli in the context of relevant information.

Information-processing theory--Cognitive theory of learning that describes the processing, storage, and retrieval of knowledge from the mind.

Initial-letter strategy--Strategy for memorization in which initial letters of a list to be memorized are taken to make a word or phrase that is more easily remembered.

Instructional objective--A statement of information or tasks that students should master after one or more lessons.

Instrumental Enrichment--A thinking-skills program in which students work through a series of paper-and-pencil exercises designed to develop various intellectual abilities.

Integrated learning system--A comprehensive, multipurpose set of instructional software developed by one company.

Intelligence quotient (IQ)--An intelligence test score that for people of average intelligence should be near 100.

Intelligence quotient--An intelligence test score that for people of average intelligence should be near 100.

Intelligence quotient--An intelligence test score that for people of average intelligence should be near 100.

Intelligence--General aptitude for learning, often measured by ability to deal with abstractions and to solve problems.

Interference--A process that occurs when recall of certain information is inhibited by the presence of other information in memory.

Internal Validity--The degree to which an experiment's results can be attributed to the treatment in question, not to other factors.

Intrinsic incentive--An aspect of an activity that people enjoy and, therefore, find motivating.

Intrinsic reinforcer--The pleasure that is inherent in simply engaging in the behavior.

Jigsaw--A cooperative learning model in which students are assigned to six-member teams to work on academic material that has been broken down into sections for each member.

Joplin Plan--A regrouping method in which students are assigned to groups for reading instruction across grade lines.

Keller Plan--A form of mastery learning in which students advance through the curriculum by passing mastery tests.

Keyword method--Strategy for improving memory by using images to link pairs of items.

Laboratory Experiment--Experiment in which conditions are highly controlled.

Language disorders--Impairments in the ability to understand language or to express ideas in one1s native language.

Language minority--Term for native speakers of any language other than English.

Large muscle development--Movements, such as running or throwing, that involve the limbs and large muscles.

Law of Effect--An act that is followed by a favorable effect is more likely to be repeated in similar situations; an act that is followed by an unfavorable effect is less likely to be repeated.

Learned helplessness--The expectation, based on experience, that one1s actions will ultimately lead to failure.

Learning disabilities (LD)--Disorders that impede academic progress of people who are not mentally retarded or emotionally disturbed.

Learning goals--A motivational orientation of students who place primary emphasis on knowledge acquisition and self-improvement.

Learning objectives--Specific behaviors students are expected to exhibit at the end of a series of lessons.

Learning probe--Methods, such as questions, that help teachers find out if students understand a lesson.

Learning styles--Orientation for approaching learning tasks and processing information in certain ways.

Learning together--A cooperative learning model that involves students with four- or five-member heterogenous groups on assignments.

Learning--A change in an individual that results from experience.

Least restrictive environment--Provisions in the law (IDEA) that requires students with disabilities to be educated to the maximum extent appropriate with their nondisabled peers.

Lesson planning--Involves stating learning objectives; thinking through what the students will know or be able to do after the lesson; what information, activities, and experiences the teacher will provide; the time needed to reach the objective; what books, materials, and media support will be provided by the teacher; and the method(s) of instruction.

Levels-of-processing theory--Explanation of memory that links recall of a stimulus with the amount of mental processing it receives.

Limited English proficiency (LEP)--Descriptive term for students who have limited mastery of English.

Loci method--Strategy for remembering lists by picturing items in familiar locations.

Locus of control--A personality trait that concerns whether people attribute responsibility for their own failure or success to internal factors or to external factors.

Long-term memory--Components of memory where large amounts of information can be stored for long periods of time.

Mainstreaming--The placement, for all or part of the school day, of disabled children in regular classes.

Maintenance--Continuation of behavior.

Mapping--Diagramming main ideas and connections between them.

Massed practice--Technique in which facts or skills to be learned are repeated many times over a concentrated period of time.

Mastery criterion--A standard students must meet to be considered proficient in a skill.

Mastery goals--The goals students must reach to be considered proficient in a skill.

Mastery grading--Absolute grading based on criteria for mastery.

Mastery learning--System of instruction that emphasizes the achievement of instructional objectives by all students by allowing learning time to vary.

Matching items--Given two lists, each item in one list will match with one item in the other list.

Meaningful learning--Mental processing of new information leading to its linkage with previously learned knowledge.

Means-end analysis--A problem-solving technique that encourages identifying the goal (ends) of a problem, the current situation, and what needs to be done (means) to reduce the difference between the two conditions.

Mediated learning--A teaching method in which the teacher guides instruction so that students will master and internalize the skills that permit higher cognitive functioning.

Mental age--the average test score received by individuals of a given chronological age.

Mental retardation--Condition, usually present at birth, that results in below-average intellectual skills and poor adaptive behavior.

Mental set--Students' readiness to begin a lesson.

Metacognition--Knowing about one's own learning ("thinking about thinking").

Metacognitive skills--Methods for learning. studying. or solving problems.

Minimum competency tests--Criterion-referenced tests focusing on important skills students are expected to have mastered to qualify for promotion or graduation.

Minority group--An ethnic or racial group that is a minority within a broader society.

Mnemonics--Methods for aiding the memory.

Mock participation--Situation in which students appear to be on task but are not engaged with learning.

Modeling--Learning by observing others' behavior.

Moral dilemmas--Hypothetical situations that require a person to consider values of right and wrong.

Moratorium--Experimentation with occupational and idelogical choices without definite commitment.

Motivation--The influence of needs and desires on the intensity and direction of behavior.

Multicultural education--Education that teaches the value of cultural diversity.

Multifactor aptitude battery--Test that predicts ability to learn a variety of specific skills and types of knowledge.

Multiple intelligences--In Gardner's theory of intelligence, a person's seven separate

Multiple-choice item--Test item usually consisting of a stem followed by choices, or alternatives.

Negative Correlation--Relationship in which high scores on one variable correspond to low scores on another.

Negative reinforcer--Release from an unpleasant situation to strengthen behavior.

Neutral stimuli--Stimuli that do not naturally prompt a particular response.

Nongraded programs (cross-age grouping programs)--Programs that combine children of different ages in the same class, generally at the primary level.

Nonverbal cues--Eye contact, gestures, physical proximity, or touching used to communicate without interrupting verbal discourse.

Normal curve equivalent--Set of standardized scores ranging from 1 to 99, having a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of about 21.

Normal curve--Bell-shaped symmetrical distribution of scores in which most scores fall near the mean, with progressively fewer occurring as distance from the mean increases.

Normal distribution--Bell-shaped symmetrical distribution of scores in which most scores fall near the mean, with progressively fewer occurring as distance from the mean increases.

Norm-referenced evaluations--Assessments that compare the performance of one student against the performance of others.

Norms--Standards derived from giving a test to a sample of people similar to those who will take the test and that can be used to interpret scores of future test takers.

Note-taking--A study strategy that requires decisions about what to write.

Object permanence--Knowing an object exists when it is out of sight.

Observational learning--Learning by observation and imitation of others.

Operant conditioning--Using consequences to control the occurrence of behavior.

Outcomes-based education--An approach to instruction and school organization that clearly specifies what students should know and be able to do at the end of a course of study.

Outlining--Representing the main points of material in heirarchical format.

Overlapping--A teacher1s ability to respond to behavior problems without interrupting a classroom lesson.

Overlearning--Method of improving retention by practicing new knowledge or behaviors after mastery is achieved.

Paired-associate learning--A task involving the linkage of two items in a pair so that when one is presented the other can be recalled.serial learning--A task requiring recall of a list of items.

Parallel distributed processing--A model based on the idea that information is processed simultaneously in the sensory register, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

Parallel play--Play in which children engage in the same activity side by side but with very little interaction or mutual influence.

Parenting styles--General patterns of behavior used by parents when dealing with their children.

Part learning--Mastering new material by learning it one part or subskill at a time.

Pedagogy--The study of teaching and learning with applications to the instructional process.

Peer tutoring--One student teaching another.

Peers--People who are equal in age or status.

Pegword method--Strategy for memorization in which images are used to link lists of facts to a familiar set of words or numbers.

Percentile score--Derived score that designates what percent of the norming group earned raw scores lower than a particular score.

Perception--A person's interpretation of stimuli.

Performance assessment--Assessment of a student's ability to perform tasks, not just knowledge.

Performance goals--A motivational orientation of students who place primary emphasis on gaining recognition from others and earning good grades.

Permissive parents--Parents who give their children great freedom.

Portfolio assessment--Assessment of a collection of the students work in an area showing growth, self-reflection, and achievement.

Positive Correlation--Relationship in which high scores on one variable correspond to high scores on another.

Positive reinforcer--Consequence given to strengthen behavior.

Postconventional level of morality--Stages 5 and 6 in Kohlberg's model of moral development, in which individuals make moral judgements in relation to abstract principles.

PQ4R method--A study stategy that has students preview, question, read, reflect, recite, and review material.

Preconventional level of morality--Stages 1 and 2 in Kohlberg's model of moral development, in which individuals make moral judgments in their own interests.

Predictive validity-A measure of the ability of a test to predict future behavior.

Premack Principle--Using favored activities to reinforce participation in less desired activities.

Preoperational stage--Stage at which children learn mentally to represent things.

Presentation punishment--Decreasing the chances that a behavior will occur again by presenting an aversive stimulus following the behavior.

Primacy effect--The tendency for items that appear at the beginning of a list to be more easily recalled than other items.

Primary reinforcer--Food, water, or other consequence that satisfies basic needs.

Principle--Explanation of the relationship between factors such as the effects of alternative grading systems on student motivation.

Private speech--Children's self-talk, which guides their thinking and action. Eventually these verbalizations are internalized as silent inner speech.

Proactive facilitation--Increased ability to learn new information due to previously acquired information.

Proactive inhibition--Decreased ability to learn new information because of interference of present knowledge.

Problem solving--The application of knowledge and skills to achieve certain goals.

Problem-solving assessment--Involves organizing, selecting, and applying complex procedures that have at least several important steps or components.

Procedural memory--A part of long-term memory that stores information about how to do things.

Process-product studies--Research approach in which the teaching practices of effective teachers are recorded through classroom observation.

Programmed instruction--Structured lessons that students can work on individually, at their own pace.

Prosocial behaviors--Actions that show respect and caring for others.

Psychosocial crisis--A set of critical issues that individuals must address as they pass through eight life stages, according to Erikson.

Psychosocial theory--A set of principles that relates social environment to psychological development.

Puberty--Developmental stage at which a person becomes capable of reproduction.

Public Law 94142--1975 federal law requiring provision of special education services to eligible students.

Pull-out programs--Compensatory education programs in which students are placed in separate classes for remediation.

Punishment--Using unpleasant consequences to weaken a behavior.

QAIT model--A model of effective instruction that focuses on elements that teachers can directly control.

Race--Visible, genetic characteristics of individuals that cause them to be seen as members of the same broad group (e.g. , African, Asian, Caucasian).

Random Assignment--Selection by chance into different treatment groups to try to ensure equality of the groups.

Randomized Field Experiment--Experiment conducted under realistic conditions in which individuals are assigned by chance to receive different practical treatments or programs.

Readiness tests--Tests to assess the student1s level of skills and knowledge necessary for a given activity.

Readiness training--Teaching the skills and knowledge necessary for a given activity.

Reading Recovery--A program that provides one-to-one tutoring from specially trained teachers to first-graders who are not reading adequately.

Recency effect--The tendency for items that appear at the end of a list to be more easily recalled than other items.

Reciprocal teaching--A teaching method based on the principles of question generation, in which metacognitive skills are taught through instruction and teacher modeling to improve the reading performance of students who have poor comprehension.

Reflectivity--The act of analyzing oneself and one's own thoughts.

Reflexes--Inborn, automatic responses to stimuli (e.g., eyeblinking in response to bright light.

Regrouping--A method of ability grouping in which students in mixed-ability classes are assigned to reading or math classes on the basis of their performance levels.

Rehearsal--Mental repetition of information, which can improve its retention.

Reinforcer--A pleasurable consequence that maintains or increases a behavior.

Relative grading standard--Grading on the basis of how well other students performed on the same test rather than in terms of preestablished absolute standards.

Reliability--A measure of the consistency of test scores obtained from the same students at different times.

Remediation--Instruction given to students having difficulty learning.

Removal punishment--Decreasing the chances that a behavior will occur again by removing a pleasant stimulus following the behavior.

Retroactive facilitation--Increased comprehension of previously learned information due to the acquisition of new information.

Retroactive inhibition--Decreased ability to recall previously learned information causedby learning of new information.

Reversibility--The ability to perform a mental operation and then reverse one's thinking to return to the starting point.

Rote learning--Memorization of facts or associations.

Rule-example-rule--Pattern of teaching concepts by presenting a rule or definition, giving examples, and then showing how examples illustrate the rule.

Scaffolding--Support for learning and problem solving. The support could be clues, reminders, encouragement, breaking the problem down into steps, providing an example, or anything else that allows the student to grow in independence as a learner.

Schedule of reinforcement--The frequency and predictability of reinforcement.

Schema theory--Theory that information is stored in long-term memory in networks of connected facts and concepts that provide a structure for making sense of new information.

Schemata--Mental networks of related concepts that influence understanding of new information.

Schemes--Mental patterns that guide behavior.

Seatwork--Work that students are assigned to do independently during class.

Secondary reinforcer--A consequence that people learn to value through its association with a primary reinforcer.

Self-actualization--A person1s desire to develop to his or her full potential.

Self-concept--A person's perception of his or her own strengths and weaknesses.

Self-esteem--The value each of us places on our own characteristics, abilities, and behaviors.

Self-regulated learners--Students who have knowledge of effective learning strategies and how and when to use them.

Self-regulation--Rewarding or punishing one's own behavior.

Self-regulation--The ability to think and solve problems without the help of others.

Semantic memory--A part of long-term memory that stores facts and general knowledge.

Sensorimotor stage--Stage during which infants learn about their surroundings by using their sensesand motor skills.

Sensory impairments--Problems with the ability to receive information through the body1s senses.

Sensory register--Component of the memory system where information is received and held for very short periods of time.

Seriation--Arranging objects in sequential order according to one aspect, such as size, weight, or volume.

Sex-role behavior--Behavior associated with one sex as opposed to the other.

Shaping--Using small steps combined with feedback to help learners reach goals.

Short essay item--Test item that includes a question for the student to answer, which may range from a sentence or two to a page of, say, 100 to 150 words.

Short-term memory--Component of memory where limited amounts of information can be stored for a few seconds.

Sign systems--Symbols that cultures create to help people think, communicate, and solve problems.

Simulation software--Computer programs that model real-life phenomena to promote problem solving and motivate interest in the areas concerned.

Single-Case Experiment--Study of a treatment's effect on one person or one group by contrasting behavior before, during, and after the treatment is applied.

Skinner box--An apparatus developed by B. F. Skinner for observing animal behavior in experiments in operant conditioning.

Small muscle development--Movements of the fine muscles of the hand.

Small-group discussion--A discussion among four to six students in a group working independently of a teacher.

Social comparison--The process of comparing one's self to others to gather information and to evaluate and judge one's abilities.

Social learning theory--Theory that emphasizes learning through observation of others.

Socioeconomic status (SES)--A measure of prestige within a social group most often based on income and education.

Solitary play--Play that occurs alone.

Special education--Programs that address the needs of students with mental, emotional, or physical disabilities.

Speech disorders--Articulation problems occurring most frequently among children in the early elementary school grades.

Standard deviation--A statistical measure of the degree of dispersion in a distribution of scores.

Standardized tests--Tests that are usually commercially prepared for nationwide use to provide accurate and meaningful information on student's level of performance relative to others at their age or grade levels.

Stanine scores--A type of standardized score ranging from 1 to 9, having a mean of 5 and a standard deviation of 2.

Stem--A question or a partial statement in a test item that is completed by one of several choices.

Stimuli--Environmental conditions that activate the senses.

Student Teams-Achievement Divisions(STAD--A cooperative learning method for mixed-ability groupings involving team recognition and group responsibility for individual learning.

Students at risk--Students who are likely to be low-achieving or 3at risk2 for school failure.

Students at risk--Students who are subject to school failure because of characteristics of the student or inadequate responses to their needs by school, family, or community.

Success for All--A comprehensive approach to prevention and early intervention for preschool, kindergarten, and grades 1 through 5, with one-to-one tutoring, family support services, and changes in instruction that might be needed to prevent students from falling behind.

Summarization--Brief statements that represent the main idea of the information being read.

Summative evaluation--Assessments that follow instruction and evaluate knowledge or skills.

Summative quiz--Final test of an objective.

Table of specifications--List of instructional objectives and expected levels of understanding that guide test development.

Task analysis--Breaking down tasks into fundamental subskills.

Taxonomy of educational objectives--Bloom's ordering of objectives from simple learning tasks to more complex ones.

Teaching objectives--Clear statement of what students are intended to learn through instruction.

Test bias--An undesirable characteristic of tests in which item content discriminates against certain students on the basis of socioeconomic status, race, ethnicity, or gender.

Theory--A set of principles that explain and relate certain phenomena.

Time on-task--Time spent actively engaged in learning the task at hand.

Time out--Removing a student from a situation in which misbehavior was reinforced.

Title I--Formerly Chapter 1, compensatory programs that were reauthorized as Title 1 of the Improving America's Schools Act (IASA) in 1994.

Tracks--Classes or curricula targeted for students of a specified achievement or ability level.

Transfer of learning--The application of knowledge acquired in one situation to new situations.

Transfer-appropriate processing--A theory that proposes that memory is stronger and lasts longer when the conditions of performance are similar to those under which learning occurred.

Transitvity--A skill learned during the concrete operational stage of cognitive development in which individuals can mentally arrange and compare objects.

Traumatic brain injury (TBI)--Direct injury to the brain, such as a tearing of nerve fibers, bruising of the brain tissues against the skull, brain stem trauma, or swelling.

Treatment--A special program that is the subject of an experiment.

True-false item--One form of multiple-choice test item, most useful when a comparison of two alternatives is called for.

Tutorial programs--Computer programs that teach lessons by varying their content and pace according to student responses.

Unconditioned response (UR)--A behavior prompted automatically by stimuli.

Unconditioned stimulus (US)--A stimulus that naturally evokes a particular response.

Uncorrelated Variables--Lack of relationship between two variables.

Untracking--A focus on having students in mixed-ability groups and holding them to high standards but providing many way to reach those standards.

Validity--A measure of the degree to which a test is appropriate for its intended use.

Variable-interval schedule--Dispensing reinforcement for behavior emitted following an unpredictable amount of time.

Variable-ratio schedule (VR)--Dispensing reinforcement following an unpredictable number of correct behaviors.

Variable--Something that can have more than one value.

Verbal learning--Learning of words or facts under various conditions.

Vicarious learning--Learning from observation the consequences of others1 behavior.

Videodisc--Interactive programs that include videos. films. still pictures, and music.

Vision Loss--Degree of uncorrectable inability to see well.

Volition--The motivation or will to make something happen, to reach one's goal.

Wait time--Length of time that a teacher allows a student to take to answer a question. Calling order--The order in which students are called by the teacher to answer questions asked during the course of a lesson.

Whole language--An educational philosophy that emphasizes the integration of reading, writing, and language and communication skills across the curriculum in the context of authentic or real-life materials, problems, and tasks.

Whole-class discussion--A discussion among all the students in a class with the teacher as moderator.

Within-class ability grouping--A system of accommodating student differences by dividing a class of students into two or more ability groups for instruction in certain subjects.

Withitness--The degree to which the teacher is aware of and responsive to student performance.

Word processing--A computer application for writing compositions that lends itself to revising and editing.

Working memory--Another term for short-term memory.

Zone of proximal development--Level of development immediately above a person's present level.

Z-score--Standard score having a mean of zero and a standard deviation of 1.

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