Chapter 6 of Houp/Pearsall/Tebeaux's Reporting Technical Information, 9th ed. (New York: Allyn & Bacon, 1997) discusses writing definitions, descriptions, and other such arrangements. Accompanying the textbook, this chapter of the online instructor manual provides the following:
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table of contents. |
- Understand how to use the arrangement strategies.
- Know the specific uses of chronological and topical arrangements in technical writing.
- Know how exemplification and analogy can be useful in enabling readers to understand an unfamiliar technical topic.
- Know the uses of and distinctions between classification and division.
- Know how to compose short, one-sentence, and extended definitions and how to use these definitions in technical documents.
- Know the kinds of visual language that can be used in mechanism descriptions.
- Know the components of an argument and their role in creating a convincing argument.
The arrangement strategies covered in this chapter—chronological and topical arrangements, exemplification, analogy, classification, division, definition, mechanism description, process description, and argument—are essential tools for students' technical writing course. While they may be abstractions, they are the fundamental building blocks for real-world technical reports. They give students tools not only to organize their reports but tools to help them generate or plan the information to put into those reports. And the arrangement strategies give you, the teacher, some excellent opportunities to design controlled learning experiences for your students. By having them do short descriptions, definitions, classifications, and the like, you can focus on important issues such as these:
- audience adaptation
- writing style
- numbers in text
- symbols and abbreviations
- documentation
- lists
- headings
- graphics and tables
For example, the mechanism description is a good opportunity for students to learn some rules on using digits or words in regular text and how to use symbols and abbreviations.
Consider these units on the arrangement strategies as technical writing workshops where you thrash out the basics and get students ready for the full-length, practical applications of technical writing. When they get to the big technical report, they will have studied and practiced nearly every critical aspect involved in writing such a report.
One problem with teaching these arrangement strategies is that your students may find them frustratingly similar to the writing assignments they've done in past composition courses. You can do what is suggested in chapter 14 of this instructor's manual and make these assignments realistic applications of technical writing. Some ideas for realistic assignments are presented in the following pages. However, such realism can make these assignments more complex and dilute the sharp focus on fundamentals.
Another problem you may encounter is the absence of "pure" examples of description, definition, and classification. A mechanism description may be heavily laced with definition, classification, and other arrangement elements. It can be hard just finding examples. Faced with this situation, we obviously need Aristotle, but in his absence here is a homely example. When they are showing players how to tackle, football coaches acknowledge that the "perfect" tackle hardly ever happens in a real game—too much else is going on. With arrangement strategies, practical realities such as audience, purpose, context, and content influence arrangement strategies. A "perfect" or "pure" description, for example, hardly ever happens.
One last point concerning these arrangement strategies. They are presented as building blocks for technical reports, but they also help students think of material to use in their reports and to organize that material. As teachers, we need to find ways to help students bridge the gap between a localized understanding of the extended definition, for example, and a larger understanding of how to use it in real applications of technical writing. You can do this by reviewing examples of reports and having students find sections that use these arrangement strategies. You can demonstrate how these strategies can be used as brainstorming methods.
Here are some ideas for exploring the arrangement strategies and other issues covered in chapter 6:
- Give the initial quiz. Try giving the quiz at the beginning of this unit as a way of getting discussion going. When students have completed the quiz and have turned it in, you can go through the answers with them as a group.
- Ensure students' understanding of the arrangement strategies. Make sure that students understand these arrangement strategies by having them look at short excerpts of technical writing and identify the arrangement strategy predominately in use. (And be ready to help students over the frustration with the lack of "pure" examples; discuss with them the idea of heuristic devices if you dare.)
- Examine professional technical reports for their use of arrangement strategies. Find a way that you can bring in a sampling of technical reports for students to examine for arrangement strategies. Get students to work in teams and report their findings to the class. (This is a good exercise to give students some exposure to real technical reports.)
- Group- or team-brainstorm a report project in terms of arrangement strategies. Start with a topic and have students apply the composing process presented in chapter 2. Have them narrow the topic, define a purpose, identify and analyze an audience, and so on. Then challenge students to develop a report outline using only the arrangement strategies presented in chapter 6 (or have them develop an outline in which they identify the arrangement strategies afterwards).
- Group-compose a mechanism or process description, an extended definition, or analogy. Have students think of a simple object or process to describe, a technical term, or a technical concept for which to design an analogy. (Avoid instructional processes in this chapter; they get full treatment in a later chapter.) You can have the class break into teams for this exercise, or you can have the entire class develop the paragraph on the board. You can bring in a computer and projector and type what students contribute—they'll get a stronger sense of the process and its product.
- Practice one-sentence definitions. As simple as it may seem, the one-sentence, or logical definition does not come easy for some students. Practice composing this formal structure on simple terms. Push students to make the genus and the differentia elements as specific as possible. Try breaking the class into teams and having them writing formal definitions of the same terms, and then compare their results.
- Practice technical arguments. The waste management, life-on-Mars, and global-warming examples in this chapter are beautiful illustrations of argument in action in a technical context. Find other examples for which students can develop the same argumentative structures. Have them identify major and minor propositions, evidence, warrants, backing, rebuttals, ethical issues, and logical fallacies. (This is another good one for teams—small groups can produce such interesting and different results for the same topic.)
The following links show you some examples of the kinds of writing discussed in this chapter. These examples are "annotated": explanatory notes are linked to specific points in the examples so that you can see the relation to the concepts discussed in the chapter. You'll need a browser that supports frames, however.
The following are topic ideas related to this chapter. Remember that for most of these ideas, you'll need to do some substantial narrowing before the topic will be usable:Chronological Arrangement (page 119)
Consider these topics for chronological arrangement:
- The history of your university.
- The chain of events in a key discovery in your major.
- The important steps in registering for a class.
Topical Arrangement (page 120)
Consider these subjects for topical arrangement:
- Career options for graduates in your major.
- Elective options in your degree program.
- Financial aid options for students.
Exemplification (pages 120-121)
Try some of these topics for development by means of examples:
- Organic farming methods.
- Computer applications in college study.
- Holistic health treatments.
- Career planning.
- Gravity.
Analogy (pages 121-122)
These topics may give you some ideas for applying analogy:
- ROM memory/A phonograph record.
- A career choice/ A marriage.
- Regular exercise/ Automotive maintenance.
Classification & Division (pages 122-126)
Here are some suggestions for topics on classification and division:
- Majors at your university.
- Bedding plants.
- Local transportation.
- Insurance.
Definition (pages 126-130)
These topics may give you some ideas for definition:
- "Mate" for novice chess players.
- "Annual" for gardeners.
- "Elective" for entering freshmen.
Description (pages 131-135)
These topics may help you decide on a subject for description:
- Carpenter's claw hammer.
- Ballpoint pen.
- Gyroscope.
- Kitchen spatula.
Process (135-141)
These topics can help you find a process to develop:
- How to register for a college course.
- How to change the oil in a car.
- How rust takes place.
- How cells replicate.
Argument (pages 142-153)
These subjects may help you create an argument (be sure to note the kinds of strategies each requires):
- Selecting one major over another.
- Purchasing health insurance.
- Exercising regularly.
- Joining a health club.
Here are some ideas for writing projects related to chapter 6, including ideas for collaborative projects:
- Write a brief chronological account involving a technical topic. Have students do some research on some historical event with a technical dimension to it—for example, a space launch or probe, a hurricane, a volcano eruption, or earthquake. Have them write a technical narrative of this event, applying proper documentation techniques.
To turn this into a collaborative project, suggest that student teams organize themselves into these roles:
- Manager. Assigns roles, sets up a timetable for activities, arranges for meetings.
- Researchers. Locate information about different aspects of the event from different sources.
- Facilitator. Leads a meeting in which students arrange collected information.
- Editor. Uses notes of the meeting to draft and revise a final report.
- Write a brief technical description of mechanism. Bring a relatively simple mechanism to class and have students examine it and take notes. Although you can sit back and watch this activity, be prepared to offer specific details, terminology, and other hints to ensure that students develop good information. Consider having students discuss how to structure the information they've collected; see that they apply the concepts presented in the textbook. Consider having students read the segments in Part V on numbers, symbols, and abbreviations—these are often stumbling blocks in descriptions. Have students write this description either in or out of class.
To turn this into a collaborative project, suggest that student teams organize themselves into these roles:
- Manager. Assigns roles, sets up a timetable for activities, arranges for meetings.
- Note takers. Take notes about the mechanism in class.
- Reviewer. Compiles notes, raises additional questions.
- Researcher. Asks questions of a technical expert.
- Editor. Compiles the results into a report which team members review for accuracy and consistency.
- Write a brief technical description of a process. Have students research a relatively simple mechanical or natural process and then write a description of that process. (A good brainstorming trick is to have students start with a question like "how does that work?" or "how does that happen?") Encourage them to use simple headings and lists in this description as well as appropriate documentation of their borrowed information sources. Consider breaking your class into teams for the information-gathering part of this project; they can share information on a topic that they know about and agree to write on. Consider learning a technical process well enough so that you can have the students interview you in class.
To turn this into a collaborative project, suggest that student teams organize themselves into these roles:
- Manager. Assigns roles, sets up a timetable for activities, arranges for meetings.
- Facilitator. Leads a meeting in which students brainstorm about the process.
- Editor. Uses notes of the meeting to draft and revise a process.
- Testers. Check the process for accuracy, order, clarity.
- Editor. Revises the process from the testers' findings.
- Write a brief extended definition. You can structure this one as either an in-class or out-of-class project. For example, have the class discuss and take notes for an extended definition of a relatively familiar term (or you can develop some expertise about a term and have students interview you in class). Individually or in teams, students can gather information on that technical term. Have the students write the definition in or out of class.
To turn this into a collaborative project, suggest that student teams organize themselves into these roles:
- Manager. Assigns roles, sets up a timetable for activities, arranges for meetings.
- Facilitator. Leads a meeting in which students brainstorm about the definition.
- Editor. Uses notes of the meeting to draft and revise the definition.
- Testers. Check the definition for accuracy, order, clarity.
- Editor. Revises the definition from the testers' findings.
- Write a brief explanation of a technical concept using an analogy. If you have a rather technical bunch, you can exercise their explaining skills by getting them to explain a technical concept using an analogy. Ensure that your students carry the analogy all the way through the paragraph rather than just mentioning it once and then dropping it. Students need plenty of brainstorming to plan analogies. Teamwork is one good way to help them fully develop their analogies.
To turn this into a collaborative project, suggest that student teams organize themselves into these roles:
- Manager. Assigns roles, sets up a timetable for activities, arranges for meetings.
- Facilitator. Leads a meeting in which students brainstorm about the analogy.
- Editor. Uses notes of the meeting to draft and revise the analogy.
- Testers. Check the analogy for accuracy, order, clarity.
- Editor. Revises the analogy from the testers' findings.
- Write a brief technical classification or definition. You can have students write a brief division paragraph using the same kinds of ideas presented in the preceding. You can have them develop information individually, in teams, in a full class session, or from you acting as expert. They can write the division in or out of class. The topic can be a simple, familiar one; it can be one that individual teams know about; or it can be one that they must do some research on. (True classification, fitting something into one of several categories, can be rather hard to make work.)
To turn this into a collaborative project, suggest that student teams organize themselves into these roles:
- Manager. Assigns roles, sets up a timetable for activities, arranges for meetings.
- Facilitator. Leads a meeting in which students brainstorm about the division.
- Editor. Uses notes of the meeting to draft and revise the division.
- Testers. Check the division for accuracy, order, clarity.
- Editor. Revises the division from the testers' findings.
- Write a brief technical argument. Have your students write a technical argument similar those at the end of chapter 6 on the waste-treatment system, life on Mars, and global warming. Have them outline their major and minor propositions (or elements of Toulmin logic). You can develop common information for this project in class or have students develop the information outside of class on their own or in teams.
To turn this into a collaborative project, suggest that student teams organize themselves into these roles:
- Facilitator. Leads a meeting in which students brainstorm about the argument.
- Manager. Assigns roles, sets up a timetable for activities, arranges for meetings.
- Editor. Uses notes of the meeting to draft and revise the argument.
- Testers. Check the argument for logic, content, and order.
- Editor. Revises the argument from the testers' findings.
The following cases draw upon the concepts and strategies presented in this chapter:
The following point summaries focus on key points in this chapter of Houp/Pearsall/Tebeaux's Reporting Technical Information:
OVERVIEW: ARRANGEMENT STRATEGIES |
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DEFINITIONS: OVERVIEW |
TYPES OF DEFINITIONS |
PLACEMENT OF DEFINITIONS |
LOGICAL, ONE-SENTENCE DEFINITIONS |
One-sentence definitions consist of the following elements: |
TOULMIN LOGIC |
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| Claim | States the major proposition. |
| Grounds | Provide evidence to support the claim. |
| Warrant | Validates the grounds. |
| Backing | Adds support for the warrants and grounds. |
| Rebuttal | Answers counterarguments, or concedes their validity by qualifying the claim. |
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Assignment: Without using sources, write a complete descriptive
discussion of a simple piece of equipment.
Audience: Write for readers who need to understand what the equipment is, how it is used, and why it is designed as it is. Goal: To provide a functional discussion of a piece of equipment to enable readers to recognize it and understand its uses. A description is an instructional piece of writing that teaches the reader the physical qualities, dimensions, materials, and uses of a mechanism. A description should be a clear and accurate word picture. Select a simple mechanism with few moving parts an no motor. Introduction: Begin the description with a short, accurate definition. Explain what the mechanism is, who uses it, and for what purpose. Then discuss the general appearance, size or range of sizes, shape, and materials of the mechanism. Last, list each of the main parts or groups of parts that make up the mechanism. Body: Your description should next give a well-developed paragraph or discussion of each part you list in your introductory discussion. Explain the size, shape, materials and function of each part. Then show how the part is attached to the mechanism as a whole. Try to explain each part in terms of its function. Illustrations: Illustrations may help explain your text more clearly. However, you must introduce and discuss each illustration. Conclusion: When you have finished the part-by-part description, briefly explain how the mechanism operates or is used. Give orderly steps, making sure that you use words clearly and accurately. When you have finished your discussion of the mechanism's function, you have finished this assignment. Hints:
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Find a relatively simple mechanism and write a set of technical
specifications for it as if it were a new product. Your goal is to
write design and manufacturing specifications that can be used by
others in your company to bring this new product to market.
Begin with an introduction that defines the function of the mechanism and provides overall information as to its appearance, size, shape, weight, and materials used in construction. In this introduction, list the main parts. Describe each part separately, in the order listed in the introduction. In each part description, begin with a functional definition of the part and continue with a full design- and manufacturing-oriented description of that part. Include all appropriate details as to size, shape, color, texture, weight, materials, orientation and attachment to other parts, and so on. Provide exact measurements on widths, lengths, and other such dimensions. Include at least one illustration with the parts labeled. Refer to it at appropriate points within your description. Conclude this description with a brief explanation of how this mechanism works or how it is used. Hints:
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Find a physical site or property to describe—for example, a vacant
lot, unused tract of land, a used car, a residential or commercial
structure. In the description, your goal is to provide details about
the site or property for use in purchasing or investment decisions.
However, exclude from this description any discussion of the
property's financial aspects; limit your description to a presentation
of physical details only.
Your audience is decision makers who will use your information to determine whether to purchase the property you describe. Begin with an introduction that provides an overall description of the property—its location, size, age, and other such details. Indicate the purpose and audience of this description. Also, list the parts of the description to follow. Decide on the best method to describe the property: if it is a house, you might describe each room; if it's a vacant lot, then discuss its major characteristics such as vegetation and terrain. In the body of this description, discuss each part or element of the property in the order listed in the introduction. For each part, provide the amount and kinds of descriptive detail your executive audience will need. Provide at least one illustration of this property, for example, a photograph or drawing. Provide appropriate figure titles, labels, and keys for any illustrations you use. |
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Assignment: Without using any sources (including textbooks,
dictionaries, or encyclopedias), write an extended definition of a
term you are familiar with from a job, a class, or a hobby.
Audience: Write for readers who have a practical use for the term you are defining. Specify the reader's level of knowledge and expertise. (Write for adults, not children.) Goal: To explain a term fully and clearly in a specified context. Pick a limited approach to a specific term. You are not responsible for all meanings of the term, only that meaning that meets your reader's specialized needs. Include only information that will be necessary for your reader. Use words precisely and accurately, keeping your reader's level of knowledge in mind. Use a clear, readable style. Begin your extended definition with a one-sentence (logical) definition. Define any additional potentially unfamiliar terms appearing in this definition. Use whatever combination of mechanism or process description, exemplification, classification, division, or other analytical strategies that best suits your discussion. Organize these segments of your discussion in a logical way. Pick a topic with a specific context. Definitions on general concepts (such as goodness) or on religious or ethical topics are not acceptable. A definition of friend for "all interested readers" will not work. Working examples appear below:
Prepare illustrations according to the format guidelines stated in chapter 10 of Reporting Technical Information. Eliminate all textual apparatus from photocopied illustrations, and provide the source of the illustration. Discuss each illustration in the text of your definition. Illustrations support and clarify discussion; they do not replace it. The length of your extended definition will depend on the complexity of the term you have selected and your reader's needs. |