Chapter 1: Introduction to Psychology Psychology: An Introduction
Psychology: Science or Common Sense?
The Goals of Psychology
Critical Thinking: Thinking Like a Student
Descriptive Research Methods
Naturalistic Observation: Caught in the Act of Being Themselves
The Case Study Method: Studying a Few Subjects in Depth
Survey Research: The Art of Sampling and Questioning
The Experimental Method: Searching for Causes
Independent and Dependent Variables
Experimental and Control Groups: The Same Except for the Treatment
Generalizing the Experimental Findings: Do the Findings Apply to Other Groups?
Potential Problems in Experimental Research
Advantages and Limitations of the Experimental Methods
Other Research Methods
The Correlation Method: Discovering Relationships, Not Causes
Psychological Tests: Assessing the Subject
Meta-Analysis: Combining the Results of Many Studies
Participants in Psychological Research
Ethics in Research: Protecting the Participants
Human Participants in Psychological Research
Bias in Psychological Research
The Use of Animals in Research
Exploring Psychology's Roots
Wilhelm Wundt: The Founding of Psychology
Titchener and Structuralism
Functionalism: The First American School of Psychology
Gestalt Psychology: The Whole is More Than Just the Sum of Its Parts
Behaviorism: Never Mind the Mind
Psychoanalysis: It's What's Down Deep That Counts
Humanistic Psychology: Looking at Human Potential
Cognitive Psychology: Focusing on Mental Processes
Psychology Today
Modern Perspectives in Psychology: Current Views on Behavior and Thinking
Psychologists at Work
Apply It! Study Skills and Critical Thinking
Thinking Critically
Chapter Summary and Review
Chapter 2: Biology and Behavior
The Neurons and the Neurotransmitters
The Neurons: Billions of Brain Cells
Neurotransmitters: The Chemical Messengers of the Brain
The Effect of Drugs on Neurotransmission
The Variety of Neurotransmitters
The Rate of Neural Firing and the Speed of the Impulse
Glial Cells: The Neurons' Helper Cells
The Central Nervous System
The Spinal Cord: An Extension of the Brain
The Brainstem: The Most Primitive Part of the Brain
The Cerebellum: A Must for Graceful Movement
The Thalamus: The Relay Station between Lower and Higher Brain Centers
The Hypothalamus: A Master Regulator
The Limbic System: Primitive Emotion and Memory
The Cerebral Hemispheres
The Lobes of the Brain
Specialized Functions of the Left Hemisphere: Language, First and Foremost
Specialized Functions of the Right Hemisphere: The Leader in Visual-Spatial Tasks
The Split Brain: Separate Halves or Two Separate Brains?
Discovering the Brain's Mysteries
The EEG and the Microelectrode
The CT Scan and Magnetic Resonance Imaging
The PET Scan, fMRI, and Other Imaging Techniques
Brain Damage: Causes and Consequences
Stoke
Head Injury
Recovering from Brain Damage
The Peripheral Nervous System
The Endocrine System
Apply It! Handedness—Does It Make a Difference?
Thinking Critically
Chapter Summary and Review
Chapter 3: Sensation and Perception
Sensation: The Sensory World
The Absolute Threshold: To Sense or Not to Sense
The Difference Threshold: Detecting Differences
Signal Detection Theory
Transduction: Transforming Sensory Stimuli into Neural Impulses
Sensory Adaptation
Vision
Light: What We See
The Eye: Windows to the Visual Sensory World
Color Vision: A Multicolored World
Hearing
Sound: What We Hear
The Ear: More to It Than Meets the Eye
Theories of Hearing: How Hearing Works
Bone Conduction: Hearing Sound Vibrations through the Bones
Hearing Loss: Kinds and Causes
Smell and Taste
Smell: Sensing Scents
Taste: What the Tongue Can Tell
Our Other Senses
The Skin Senses: Information from Our Natural Clothing
Pain: Physical Hurts
The Kinesthetic Sense: Keeping Track of Our Body Parts
The Vestibular Sense: Sensing Up and Down and Changes in Speed
Perception: Ways of Perceiving
The Gestalt Principles of Perceptual Organization
Perceptual Constancy
Depth Perception: Perceiving What's Up Close and Far Away
Perception of Motion
Extraordinary Perceptions: Puzzling Perceptions
Cultural Differences in the Perception of Visual Illusions
Additional Influences on Perception
Bottom-Up and Top-Down Processing
The Role of Psychological Factors in Perception
Subliminal Persuasion and Extrasensory Perception
Subliminal Persuasion: Does It Work?
Extrasensory Perception: Does It Exist?
Apply It! Noise and Hearing Loss—Bad Vibrations
Thinking Critically
Chapter Summary and Review
Chapter 4: States of Consciousness
What is Consciousness?
Circadian Rhythms: Our 24-Hour High and Lows
The Suprachiasmatic Nucleus: The Body's Timekeeper
Jet Lag: Where Am I and What Time Is It?
Shift Work: Working Day and Night
Taking Melatonin As a Sleep Aid
Sleep: That Mysterious One-Third of Our Lives
NREM and REM Sleep: Watching the Eyes
Sleep Cycles: The Nightly Pattern of Sleep
Variations in Sleep: How We Differ
Sleep Deprivation: How Does It Affect Us?
The Functions of Sleep: The Restorative and Circadian Theories
Dreaming: Mysterious Mental Activity While We Sleep
Sleep Disorders
Parasomnias: Unusual Behaviors during Sleep
Major Sleep Disorders
Altering Consciousness through Concentration and Suggestion
Meditation: Expanded Consciousness or Relaxation?
Hypnosis: Look into My Eyes
Culture and Altered States of Consciousness
Altered States of Consciousness and Psychoactive Drugs
Variables Influencing Individual Responses to Drugs
Drug Addiction: Slave to a Substance
Stimulants: Speeding Up the Nervous System
Depressants: Slowing Down the Nervous System
Hallucinogens: Seeing, Hearing, and Feeling What Is Not There
How Drugs Affect the Brain
Apply It! Battling Insomnia
Thinking Critically
Chapter Summary and Review
Chapter 5: Learning
Classical Conditioning: The Original View
Pavlov and Classical Conditioning
The Elements and Processes of Classical Conditioning
John Watson, Little Albert, and Peter
Pioneers: John B. Watson
Classical Conditioning: The Contemporary View
The Cognitive Perspective: Prediction is the Critical Element
Biological Predispositions: Their Role in Classical Conditioning
Classically Conditioned Taste Aversions
Classical Conditioning in Everyday Life
Factors Influencing Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Thorndike and the Law of Effect
The Elements and Process in Operant Conditioning
Pioneers: Burrhus Frederic Skinner
Reinforcement: What's the Payoff?
Factors Influencing Operant Conditioning
Comparing Classical and Operant Conditioning: What's the Difference?
Punishment: That Hurts!
Escape and Avoidance Learning
Learned Helplessness
Applications of Operant Conditioning
Cognitive Learning
Learning by Insight: Aha! Now I Get It
Latent Learning and Cognitive Maps: I Might Use That Later
Observational Learning: Watching and Learning
Apply It! How to Win the Battle against Procrastination
Thinking Critically
Chapter Summary and Review
Chapter 6: Memory
Remembering
The Three Processes in Memory: Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval
The Three Memory Systems: The Long and the Short of It
The Levels-of-Processing Model: Another View of Memory
Measuring Memory
Three Methods of Measuring Memory
Hermann Ebbinghaus and the First Experimental Studies on Learning and Memory
Forgetting
The Causes of Forgetting
Prospective Forgetting: Forgetting to Remember
The Nature of Remembering and Forgetting
Memory as a Permanent Record: The Videocassette Recorder Analogy
Memory as a Reconstruction: Partly Fact and Partly Fiction
Eyewitness Testimony: Is It Accurate?
Recovering Repressed Memories: A Controversy
Unusual Memory Phenomena
Memory and Culture
Factors Influencing Retrieval
The Serial Position Effect: To Be Remembered, Be First or Last But Not in the Middle
Environmental Context and Memory
The State-Dependent Memory Effect
Stress, Anxiety, and Memory: Relax and Remember
Biology and Memory
Brain Damage: A Clue to Memory Formation
Neuronal Changes in Memory: Brain Work
Hormones and Memory
Improving Memory
Study Habits That Aid Memory
Apply It! Improving Memory with Mnemonic Devices
Thinking Critically
Chapter Summary and Review
Chapter 7: Cognition and Language
Imagery and Concepts: Tools of Thinking
Imagery: Picture This—Elephants with Purple Polka Dots
Concepts: Our Mental Classification System (Is a Penguin a Bird?)
Deductive and Inductive Reasoning: Logical Thinking
Decision Making: Making Choices in Life
The Additive Strategy
Elimination by Aspects
Heuristics and Decision Making
Framing Alternatives to Influence Decisions
Problem Solving: Beyond Decision Making
Approaches to Problem Solving: How Do We Begin?
Impediments to Problem Solving: Mental Stumbling Blocks
Artificial Intelligence
Language
The Structure of Language
Animal Language
Language and Thinking
Bilingualism
Apply It! Making Good Decisions—Avoiding Bad Decisions
Thinking Critically
Chapter Summary and Review
Chapter 8: Intelligence and Creativity
The Nature of Intelligence
The Search for Factors Underlying Intelligence
Intelligence: More Than One Type?
Measuring Intelligence
Alfred Binet and the First Successful Intelligence Test
Intelligence Testing in the United States
Requirements of Good Tests: Reliability, Validity, and Standardization
The Range of Intelligence
Intelligence and Neural Speed and Efficiency
The IQ Controversy: Brainy Dispute
The Uses and Abuses of Intelligence Tests
The Nature-Nurture Controversy: Battle of the Centuries
Intelligence: Is It Fixed or Changeable?
Expectations, Effort, and Academic Achievement—A Cross-Cultural Comparison
Emotional Intelligence
Personal Components of Emotional Intelligence
Interpersonal Components of Emotional Intelligence
Creativity: Unique and Useful Productions
The Creative Process
The Nature of Creative Thinking
Measuring Creativity: Are There Reliable Measures?
Characteristics of the Creative Person
Savant Syndrome: A Special Form of Creativity
Apply It! Stimulating Creativity
Thinking Critically
Chapter Summary and Review
Chapter 9: Child Development
Developmental Psychology: Basic Issues and Methodology
Controversial Issues in Developmental Psychology
Approaches to Studying Developmental Change
Heredity and Prenatal Development
The Mechanism of Heredity: Genes and Chromosomes
The Stages of Prenatal Development: Unfolding According to Plan
Negative Influences on Prenatal Development: Sabotaging Nature's Plan
Physical Development and Learning in Infancy
The Neonate: Seven Pounds of Beauty?
Perceptual Development in Infancy
Learning in Infancy
Motor Development in Infancy
Emotional Development in Infancy
Temperament: How and When Does It Develop?
The Formation of Attachment
The Father-Child Relationship
Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development
The Cognitive Stages of Development: Climbing the Steps to Cognitive Maturity
Pioneers: Jean Piaget
An Evaluation of Piaget's Contribution
Vygotsky's Sociocultural View of Cognitive Development
Cognitive Development: The Information-Processing Approach
Language Development
The Stages of Language Development: The Orderly Progression of Language
Theories of Language Development: How Do We Acquire It?
Socialization of the Child
Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development
The Parents' Role in the Socialization Process
Peer Relationships
Television as a Socializing Agent: Does It Help or Hinder?
Apply It! What Kind of Care Is Best for Your Child?
Thinking Critically
Chapter Summary and Review
Chapter 10: Adolescence and Adulthood
Adolescence: Physical and Cognitive Development
Physical Development during Adolescence: Growing, Growing, Grown
Cognitive Development in Adolescence: Piaget's Formal Operations Stage
Adolescence: Moral and Social Development
Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development
Parental Relationships: Their Quality and Influence
The Peer Group
Sexuality and Adolescence
Teenage Pregnancy: Too Much Too Soon
Part-Time Jobs for Adolescents: A Positive or a Negative?
Erikson's Psychological Theory: Adolescence through Adulthood
Identity versus Role Confusion: Erikson's Stage for Adolescence
Intimacy versus Isolation: Erikson's Stage for Early Adulthood
Pioneers: Erik Homburger Erikson
Generativity versus Stagnation: Erikson's Stage for Middle Adulthood
Ego Integrity versus Despair: Erikson's Final Stage
Erikson's Theory: Does Research Support It?
Other Theories of Adulthood
Levinson's Seasons of Life
Reinke, Ellicott, and Harris: The Life Course in Women
Life Stages: Fact or Fiction?
Early and Middle Adulthood
Physical Changes in Adulthood
Intellectual Capacity during Early and Middle Adulthood
Lifestyle Patterns in Adulthood
Personality and Social Development in Middle Age
Later Adulthood
Physical Changes in Later Adulthood
Cognitive Development in Later Adulthood
Personality and Social Development in Later Adulthood
Culture and Care for the Elderly
Death and Dying
Apply It! Building and Maintaining a Good Relationship
Thinking Critically
Chapter Summary and Review
Chapter 11: Motivation and Emotion
Introduction to Motivation
Theories of Motivation
Instinct Theories of Motivation
Drive-Reduction Theory: Striving to Keep a Balanced Internal State
Arousal Theory: Striving for an Optimal Level of Arousal
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: Putting Our Needs in Order
The Primary Drives: Hunger and Thirst
Thirst: We All Have Two Kinds
The Biological Basis of Hunger: Internal Hunger Cues
Other Factors Influencing Hunger: External Eating Cues
Understanding Body Weight: Why We Weigh What We Weigh
Dieting: A National Obsession
Eating Disorders: Tyranny of the Scale
Social Motives
The Need for Achievement: The Drive to Excel
Fear of Success
Work Motivation
The What and Why of Emotions
Motivation and Emotion: What Is the Connection?
The Components of Emotions: The Physical, the Cognitive, and the Behavioral
Theories of Emotion: Which Comes First, the Thought or the Feeling?
The Polygraph: Lie Detector or Emotion Detector?
The Expression of Emotion
The Range of Emotion: How Wide Is It?
The Development of Facial Expressions in Infants: Smiles and Frowns Come Naturally
Facial Expressions for the Basic Emotions—A Universal Language
Cultural Rules for Displaying Emotion
Emotion as a Form of Communication
Experiencing Emotion
The Facial-Feedback Hypothesis: Does the Face Cause the Feeling?
Emotion and Rational Thinking
Gender Differences in Experiencing Emotion
Love: The Strongest Emotional Bond
Apply It! Quest for Happiness
Thinking Critically
Chapter Summary and Review
Chapter 12: Human Sexuality and Gender
What Makes a Male, a Male and a Female, a Female?
The Sex Chromosomes: X's and Y's
The Sex Hormones: Contributing to Maleness and Femaleness
Gender Role Development
Environmental Influences on Gender Typing
Psychological Theories of Gender-Role Development
Gender Differences: Fact or Myth?
Gender Differences in Cognitive Abilities
Gender Differences in Social Behavior and Personality
Adjustment and Gender Typing: Feminine, Masculine, or Androgynous?
Gender Stereotyping—Who Wins? Who Loses?
Sexual Attitudes and Behavior
The Kinsey Surveys: The First In-Depth Look at Sexual Behavior
Sexual Attitudes and Behavior Today: The New Sexual Revolution
Sexual Desire and Arousal: Driving the Sex Drive
Child Sex Abuse
Sexual Orientation
What Determines Sexual Orientation: The Physiological or the Psychological?
Research Findings on the Developmental Experiences of Gay Men and Lesbians
Social Attitudes Towards Gays: From Celebration to Condemnation
Sexual Dysfunction
Sexual Desire Disorders: From Disinterest to Aversion
Sexual Arousal Disorders
Orgasmic Disorders
Sexual Pain Disorders
Sexually Transmitted Diseases: The Price of Casual Sex
The Bacterial Infections
The Viral Infections
Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS)
Protection against Sexually Transmitted Diseases: Minimizing the Risk
Apply It! Protecting Yourself from Rape
Thinking Critically
Chapter Summary and Review
Chapter 13: Personality Theory and Assessment
Sigmund Freud and Psychoanalysis
The Conscious, the Preconscious, and the Unconscious: Levels of Awareness
The Id, the Ego, and the Superego: Warring Components of the Personality
Pioneers: Sigmund Freud
Defense Mechanisms: Protecting the Ego
The Psychosexual Stages of Development: Centered on the Erogenous Zones
Freud's Explanation of Personality
Evaluating Freud's Contribution
The Neo-Freudians
Carl Gustav Jung
Alfred Adler: Overcoming Inferiority
Karen Horney: Champion of Feminine Psychology
Trait Theories
Gordon Allport: Personality Traits in the Brain
Raymond Cattell's 16 Personality Factors
Hans Eysenck: Stressing Two Factors
The Five-Factor Theory of Personality: The Big Five
Evaluating the Trait Perspective
Learning Theories and Personality
The Behaviorist View of B. F. Skinner
The Social-Cognitive Theorists: Expanding the Behaviorist View
Humanistic Personality Theories
Abraham Maslow: The Self-Actualizing Person
Carl Rogers: The Fully Functioning Person
Evaluating the Humanistic Perspective
Personality: Is It in the Genes?
The Twin Study Method: Studying Identical and Fraternal Twins
The Shared and Nonshared Environment
The Adoption Method
Personality and Culture
Personality Assessment
Observation, Interviews, and Rating Scales
Personality Inventories: Taking Stock
Projective Tests: Projections from the Unconscious
Personality Theories: A Final Comment
Apply It! Becoming More Optimistic
Thinking Critically
Chapter Summary and Review
Chapter 14: Health and Stress
Two Approaches to Health and Illness
Theories of Stress
Hans Selye and the General Adaptation Syndrome
Richard Lazarus's Cognitive Theory of Stress
Sources of Stress: The Common and the Extreme
Everyday Sources of Stress
Catastrophic Events and Chronic Intense Stress
Stress in the Workplace
Coping with Stress
Problem-Focused and Emotion-Focused Coping
Religion and Coping with Negative Life Events
Proactive Coping: Dealing with Stress in Advance
Evaluating Life Stress: Major Life Changes, Hassles, and Uplifts
Holmes and Rahe's Social Readjustment Rating Scale: Adding up the Stress Score
The Hassles of Life: Little Things Stress a Lot
Health and Disease
Responding to Illness
Coronary Heart Disease: The Leading Cause of Death
Cancer: A Dreaded Disease
Health in the United States
The Immune System: An Army of Cells to Fight Off Disease
Personal Factors Reducing the Impact of Stress and Illness
Your Lifestyle and Your Health
Smoking: Hazardous to Your Health
Alcohol: A Problem for Millions
Exercise: Keeping Fit Is Healthy
Apply It! Managing Stress
Thinking Critically
Chapter Summary and Review
Chapter 15: Psychological Disorders
What is Abnormal?
Perspectives on the Causes and Treatment of Psychological Disorders
Defining and Classifying Psychological Disorders
Schizophrenia
The Symptoms of Schizophrenia: Many and Varied
Types of Schizophrenia
The Causes of Schizophrenia
Mood Disorders
Depressive Disorders and Bipolar Disorders: Emotional Highs and Lows
Causes of Major Depressive Disorder and Bipolar Disorder
Suicide and Gender, Race, and Age
Anxiety Disorders: When Anxiety Is Extreme
Generalized Anxiety Disorder
Panic Disorder
Phobias: Persistent, Irrational Fears
Obsessive Compulsive Disorder
Somatoform and Dissociative Disorders
Somatoform Disorders: Physical Symptoms with Psychological Causes
Dissociative Disorders: Mental Escapes
Other Psychological Disorders:
Sexual and Gender Identity Disorders
Personality Disorders: Troublesome Behavior Patterns
Apply It! Depression—Bad Thoughts, Bad Feelings
Thinking Critically
Chapter Summary and Review
Chapter 16: Therapies
Insight Therapies
Psychodynamic Therapies: Freud Revisited
Humanistic Therapies
Therapies Emphasizing Interaction with Others
Behavior Therapy: Unlearning the Old, Learning the New
Behavior Modification Techniques Based on Operant Conditioning
Therapies Based on Classical Conditioning
Therapies Based on Observational Learning Theory: Just Watch This!
Cognitive Therapies: It's the Thought That Counts
Rational-Emotive Therapy: Human Misery—The Legacy of False Beliefs
Beck's Cognitive Therapy: Overcoming "the Power of Negative Thinking"
The Biological Therapies
Drug Therapy: Pills for Psychological Ills
Electroconvulsive Therapy: The Controversy Continues
Psychosurgery: Cutting to Cure
Therapies and Therapists: Many Choices
Evaluating the Therapies: Do They Work?
Mental Health Professionals: How Do They Differ?
Therapy and Race, Ethnicity, and Gender
Apply It! Finding a Therapist
Thinking Critically
Chapter Summary and Review
Chapter 17: Social Psychology
Introduction to Social Psychology
Social Perception
Impression Formation: Sizing Up the Other Person
Attribution: Our Explanation of Behavior
Attraction
Factors Influencing Attraction: Magnets That Draw Us Together
Romantic Attraction
Mate Selection: The Mating Game
Conformity, Obedience, and Compliance
Conformity: Going Along with the Group
Obedience: Following Orders
Compliance: Giving In to Requests
Group Influence
The Effects of the Group on Individual Performance
The Effects of the Group on Decision Making
Social Roles
Attitudes and Attitude Change
Attitudes: Cognitive, Emotional, and Behavioral Patterns
Persuasion: Trying to Change Attitudes
Prejudice and Discrimination
The Roots of Prejudice and Discrimination
Discrimination in the Workplace
Combating Prejudice and Discrimination
Prejudice: Is It Increasing or Decreasing?
Prosocial Behavior: Behavior That Benefits Others
The Bystander Effect: The More Bystanders, the Less Likely They Are to Help
People Who Help in Emergencies
Aggression: Intentionally Harming Others
Biological Factors in Aggression: Genes, Hormones, and Brain Damage
Aggression in Response to Frustration: Sometimes but Not Always
Aggression in Response to Aversive Events: Pain, Heat, Noise and Crowding
The Social Learning Theory of Aggression: Learning to Be Aggressive
Apply It! Nonverbal Behavior—The Silent Language
Thinking Critically
Chapter Summary
Appendix: Statistical Methods
References
Glossary
Name Index
Subject Index
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©1998 Allyn & Bacon